Biology Unit 4 AOS 1 checklist questions

chapter 8 checklist dot points

What does the term immunity mean?

protection against a disease which can be formed with or without medical intervention

What is natural active immunity?

immunity protected against a disease created by antibodies and memory cells produced by an individual’s own immune system

What is natural passive immunity?

immunity protected against disease created by antibodies from an external non-medical source - breastfeeding which contains antibodies gnerated from the mother’s own immune system

What is acquired active immunity?

immunity formed after a vaccination of preformed antibodies

what are the different types of vaccinations?

vaccines can be attenuated, contain inactivated pathogens, proteins from the surface of pathogens or rna

what is the goal of vaccinations?

designed to stimulate a person’s adaptive immune system to create immunity to a pathogen without actually causing disease

why are vaccinations done on a schedule?

after a person receives their first vaccination, there is a delay in the adaptive immune system’s response as antigen-presenting cells as finding complementary t and b cells for the process of clonal selection
however a booster vaccination results in emory cells quickly recognising the antigen and producing a larger more rapid immune response

what are booster vaccinations?

a vaccination given to a person later in time after they have completed their initial vaccination program to enhance their existing immunity against a disease

what is the goal of booster vaccinations?

to stimulate remaining memory cells after others have died to mount an immune response, generating more antibodies and memory cells to restore immunity

what is artificial passive immunity?

immunity protected against a disease created by antibodies from an external medical source such as antivenom

what is herd immunity?

protection against a disease conferred to non-immune individuals when a high percentage of a population is immune to the same disease which is achieved through high vaccination rates

why is herd immunity important?

combating disease and community disease transmission, as there will always be people who are not able or choose not to be vaccinate and herd immunity comprehensively protects everyone

how much of a population should be vaccinated for herd immunity to work?

sufficiently large proportion of the population

what are infectious diseases?

illnesses caused by a pathogen

what does the term contagious mean?

a property of a pathogen or disease meaning that it can be transmitted from one organism to another

what does the term virulent mean?

the potential of a pathogen or disease causing serious illness or harm

what is the different between emerging and re-emerging diseases?

emerging diseases are disease that have not occurred in human humans before of in isolated area where as re-emerging diseases are disease that were once major public health problems then declined but are becoming a problem again

where do diseases come from?

evolution - pathogenic evolution
globalisation and travel- ability to travel
increase exposure to animals - transmission from animal to human
increasing population - higher population means more likely hood of spreading on a large scale
changing technology
insufficient vaccinatoin of population- lack of herd immunity

what is an outbreak?

a sudden and unexpected increase in the occurrence of a disease

what is the difference between an epidemic and pandemic?

an epidemic is a dramatically increased occurrence of a disease within a community whereas a pandemic is the dramatic spread of disease across multiple countries or continents

the colonisation of Australia caused many disruptions to indigenous people, discuss what problems arose and why?

European settlers introduced deadly diseases like measles, smallpox, and influenza, to which Indigenous Australians had no immunity or treatment knowledge. Colonisation disrupted traditional medicine, restricted access to food and water, and forced communities into overcrowded, unsanitary camps. These conditions worsened health, increased infection risk, and caused mass deaths. In Victoria, over 60% of the Indigenous population died within 50 years. The settlers’ impact remains deeply felt today.

What are the different ways to identify pathogens?

physical
phenotypic
immunological
molecular

explain physically identifying a pathogen

Visualising pathogens using microscopes to determine their structure

explain phenotypically identifying a pathogen

Selective media and biochemical test panels help identify pathogens by promoting specific growth and using tests to determine bacterial genus and species characteristics.

explain immunologically identifying a pathogen

Serology detects disease by identifying antibodies or antigens in serum. ELISA, especially the sandwich method, reveals pathogenic antigens through a color change reaction

what does ELISA stand for

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

what is the process of sandwich ELISA

an experimental technique used to identify a pathogen by determining the presence of antigens or antibodies in a sample

• Specific antibodies are fixed to a plate of a pathogen.

• The tested serum sample is added; any pathogen antigens bind to the antibodies.

• a second detection antibody linked to a colour changing enzyme is added to the plate binding to any antibody-antigen complexes present.

• A substrate is added, causing a colour change if pathogenic antigens are present

explain molecularly identifying a pathogen

Hybridisation detects pathogens using labelled genetic probes that bind to target DNA; whole-genome sequencing reveals detailed pathogen information for identification.

what are the 5 main modes of transmission

airborne
droplet
direct physical contact
indirect physical contact
faecal-oral

what is airborne transmission?

Airborne pathogens spread through tiny particles that linger in the air and can infect others even after the infected person has left such as through sneezes, coughs, or talking

what is droplet transmission?

Respiratory droplets briefly linger in air or on surfaces; touching contaminated surfaces and then mucous membranes can lead to infection

what is direct physical contact?

Pathogens spread through direct bodily contact, including skin touch, bodily fluids, sexual or oral contact, vertical transmission, or contaminated materials during medical procedures

what is indirect physical contact transmission?

Indirect transmission happens without direct contact, as pathogens spread through contaminated objects like water or needles, or vectors like mosquitoes.

what is faecal-oral transmission?

Pathogens in faeces can contaminate food, water, or become airborne during flushing, leading to indirect faecal-oral transmission and infection in others.

what are the different ways the transmission of a disease can be controlled?

prevention
screening
quarantine
identification of pathogen or mode of transmission
treating infected individuals

how can prevention control disease transmission?

Improving hygiene and sanitation through handwashing, sterilising surfaces with disinfectants, ensuring clean water and food, and using PPE helps prevent disease spread. Vaccination, where available, and lockdowns or movement restrictions further reduce transmission risks

how can screening control disease transmission?

Routine disease testing helps public health workers quickly identify affected individuals and target responses. Monitoring pharmacy medication sales can also reveal increases in symptoms or illnesses, aiding early detection and intervention

how can quarantine control disease transmission?

to prevent disease spreading within the community

how can identification of the pathogen and mode of transmission control disease transmission?

Scientists use various methods to identify pathogens in individuals, enabling officials to implement targeted measures to control disease spread. For respiratory pathogens, this includes actions like wearing masks and practicing social distancing to reduce airborne and droplet transmission risks

how can treating infected individuals control disease transmission?

Curative treatments include antibiotics for bacterial infections, antivirals for viral diseases, and fungicides for fungal infections. Antibiotics target bacteria without harming human cells but are ineffective against viruses. Misusing antibiotics, especially for viral infections, can cause antimicrobial resistance, making bacteria harder to treat. Antivirals and fungicides similarly target their specific pathogens to inhibit infection and disease progression

what are antibiotics?

medication used to kill bacteria or slow their growth

which kind of pathogen do antibiotics work against?

bacteria

what are antivirals?

medications used to treat viral infections

which kind of pathogen do antivirals work for?

viruses

what is antibiotic resistance?

the ability of a microorganism to survive exposure to an antibiotic agent

how can antibiotic resistance be avoided?

avoiding infection, using the correct amount and right kind of medications

what are immunotherapies?

medical interventions that treat disease by modulation the immune system, typically by either amplifying or reducing an immune reponse

what is dendritic cell therapy?

Dendritic cells are primed with tumour-associated antigens (TAAs) to activate lymphocytes that target tumour cells. This can be done through TAA vaccination or by extracting dendritic cells, priming them externally, and reinfusing them into the patient to trigger a targeted immune response

what is CAR-T therapy?

T cells are extracted from the patient and genetically modified by adding a gene that codes for a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR). This receptor is expressed on the T cell surface, enabling the T cells to specifically recognize and attack cancer cell antigens. Once engineered, these CAR T cells are reinfused into the patient, where they seek out and destroy cancer cells effectively

what is antibody therapy?

Involves the creation and use of antibodies to stimulate and enhance the functioning of the immune system, and is often used in the treatment of cancer. Antibodies used in antibody therapy are typically monoclonal antibodies.

what is cytokine therapy?

Involves the use of immune signalling molecules such as interferons and interleukins to modulate the effect of the immune system

what are monoclonal antibodies?

Monoclonal antibodies are labatory-made antibodies that target specific antigens, used therapeutically to treat cancer, autoimmune diseases, and other conditions without always involving immune modulation

how are monoclonal antibodies created?

• Scientists identify an antigen on the target cell (like a cancer cell).

• They vaccinate a mouse with this antigen, triggering an immune response.

• B cells producing antibodies against the antigen are extracted from the mouse’s spleen.

• These B cells are fused with myeloma (cancer) cells to form hybridomas, which grow indefinitely.

• Hybridomas producing the desired antibody are selected and cloned.

• The antibodies are harvested, purified, and ready for use.

how can monoclonal antibodies treat cancer?

Monoclonal antibodies are traditionally produced by vaccinating mice with a target antigen, extracting their B lymphocytes, and fusing them with myeloma cells to create hybridomas. These hybridomas grow indefinitely and produce specific antibodies, which are then screened, cloned, purified, and administered to patients for treatment

which type of immunotherapy is used to treat cancer?

Monoclonal antibody-based immunotherapy is used to treat cancer by specifically targeting cancer antigens and stimulating the immune system to destroy cancer cells, offering more precise treatment with fewer side effects compared to traditional chemotherapy and radiotherapy

what are naked monoclonal antibodies?

monoclonal antibodies that do not have any other molecules attached to them

what are conjugated monoclonal antibodies?

monoclonal antibodies with other molecules attached to them

how are naked mAbs different to conjugated mAbs?

naked mAbs do not have another molecule attached to them while conjugated mAbs do have other molecules attached to them

how can monoclonal antibodies treat autoimmune disease?

Monoclonal antibodies treat autoimmune diseases by suppressing the immune system’s attack on self-cells. They work as suppression immunotherapy by either inhibiting cytokines that activate immune cells or targeting and depleting autoreactive B and T cells. This approach reduces harmful immune responses more specifically than traditional broad immunosuppressants, potentially minimizing side effects while preserving normal immune function

what type of immunotherapy is used to treat autoimmune disease?

The type of immunotherapy used to treat autoimmune diseases, according to the textbook passage, is suppression immunotherapy, which employs monoclonal antibodies to specifically reduce the immune system’s attack on self-cells by inhibiting cytokines or depleting autoreactive B and T cells.