Ethical Issues in Psychological Research and Codes of Ethics

A set of 100 vocabulary flashcards covering key terms, historical trials, basic principles, and legal frameworks in research ethics based on the PSRS 412 lecture notes.

Reactive Ethical Guidelines

Ethical guidelines that were developed reactively as 'recipes' to resolve research situations or outcomes that had caused harm to participants, rather than proactively.

John Bryant

Past President of CIOMS (2000) who stated that it took the cruelty described at Nuremberg to make the world realize it had to protect human subjects from inhuman research.

Robert Levine

Author who noted in 2013 during discussions on the Declaration of Helsinki that nothing moves the field of research ethics forward faster than a scandal.

Research (WHO-ERC Definition)

Any social science, biomedical, behavioral, or epidemiological activity that entails systematic collection or analysis of data, with the intent to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.

Generalizable Knowledge

Theories, principles, or relationships, or the accumulation of information on which they are based, that can be corroborated by accepted scientific methods of observation and inference.

Research for Health

The development of knowledge with the aim of understanding health challenges and mounting an improved response to them, spanning five generic areas of activity.

Five Generic Areas of Activity in Research for Health

Measuring the problem, understanding its cause(s), elaborating solutions, translating solutions into policy/practice/products, and evaluating effectiveness.

Research Ethics (WHO Definition)

The requirement that all research involving human participants respects the dignity, safety, and rights of research participants and recognizes the responsibilities of researchers.

Absolutism

The stance that exception-less ethical rules exist that are valid for all cultures at all times and places.

Universalism

The view that fundamental ethical principles exist that are universally applicable because ethical principles are general and require moral interpretation.

Sigmund Rascher

SS doctor who oversaw human experimentation involving icy water immersion of Nazi victims at Dachau concentration camp in 1942.

Dachau Concentration Camp Experiment (1942)

German-supported Nazi experiment in 1942 where victims were immersed in icy water, overseen by SS doctor Sigmund Rascher.

Unit 731

Japanese military research unit in China during WWII that tortured and killed over 3,000 Chinese people through vivisections, intentional infections, and testing limits of human tolerance.

Doctors' Trial (1946-1947)

The Nuremberg trial prosecuting doctors and medical personnel involved in war crimes and human experimentation during WWII.

Nuremberg Code (1947)

A 10-point ethics code crafted by Dr. Leo Alexander defining legitimate human research within a legal framework following WWII.

Dr. Leo Alexander

The individual who crafted the Nuremberg Code in 1947 as a legal framework for legitimate human research.

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)

Landmark declaration adopted in 1948 following WWII establishing fundamental human rights standards globally.

Voluntary Consent (Nuremberg Code Point 1)

The foundational principle of the Nuremberg Code stating that the voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential.

Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972)

US Public Health Service study in Alabama that deceived 600 Black men and deliberately withheld penicillin to track syphilis progression over decades.

Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital Study (1963)

Study in Brooklyn, NY where researchers secretly injected live cancer cells into 22 elderly, debilitated patients to study immune rejection.

Willowbrook State School Study (1967)

Study in New York where institutionalized children with intellectual disabilities were deliberately infected with live hepatitis virus to study transmission.

Declaration of Helsinki (1964)

World Medical Association code addressing Nuremberg Code deficiencies, specifically concerning research in legally incompetent or vulnerable populations.

Beneficence (Declaration of Helsinki)

The ethical duty of a physician defined as 'do positive good'.

Non-malfeasance (Declaration of Helsinki)

The ethical duty of a physician defined as 'do no harm'.

Belmont Report (1979)

Report framing boundaries between practice and research across three basic ethical principles: autonomy (respect for persons), beneficence, and justice.

Respect for Persons (Belmont Principle)

Ethical principle requiring that individuals be treated as autonomous agents and that those with diminished autonomy be entitled to protection.

Beneficence (Belmont Principle)

Ethical obligation placed upon investigators, stakeholders, and society to do positive good, maximize possible benefits, and minimize possible harms.

Justice (Belmont Principle)

Ethical requirement centered on fairness and rights, ensuring equal distribution of research burdens and benefits.

Distributive Justice

Principle ensuring an individual receives research benefits without being denied entitlement and bears burdens without having them imposed unduly.

Non-pneumatic Anti-Shock Garment Study

An emergency medicine research study cited as an example involving non-consenting participants due to emergency conditions.

Prescriptive Ticked Sheet

A checklist format used by ethics committees specifying essential disclosures required in an informed consent form.

Informed Decision-Making Process

Comprehensive process encompassing all aspects leading to informed consent and informed dissent, distinct from mere signed documentation.

Competence (Informed Decision-Making)

The participant's ability and capacity to understand research information provided by investigators.

Voluntariness (Informed Decision-Making)

A participant's decision to join a study free of coercion, undue influence, intimidation, or improper inducement.

Comprehensive Information

The investigator's responsibility to provide complete research details without omitting necessary facts.

Comprehensible Information

Information presented by the investigator using simple, clear language tailored to the participant's understanding.

Social Harm

Risks to participants arising from research involvement, including stigmatization and community exclusion.

Legal Harm

Risks to participants arising from research involvement, including fines or potential incarceration.

SRH Research

Sexual and Reproductive Health research, which involves deeply personal topics, unique vulnerabilities, and potentially disturbing disclosures.

Commercial Sex Workers Research Dilemma

Ethical situation where participants viewed the researcher as naive and judgmental, while the researcher felt voyeuristic, exploitive, emotional, and vulnerable.

Statutory Duty of Researchers

The legal obligation of researchers to inform authorities when sensitive information regarding collateral illegal activities or drug use is obtained.

Court Order to Compel Disclosure

A judicial command requiring researchers to disclose confidential participant data gathered during research.

Harm from Stigmatization

Group harm resulting from research that creates negative stereotypes or public bias against specific participant populations.

Double Stigmatization

Compounded harm occurring when research associates sensitive issues (e.g., domestic violence, HIV/AIDS) with specific spouses, schools, or subgroups.

Cultural Sensitivity

The obligation of researchers and sponsors to respect the variety of beliefs, customs, and practices across different cultures.

Moral Relativism

Concept analyzing whether ethical standards are culturally dependent rather than universally fixed.

Community Permission

Authorization obtained from a community leader, tribal chief, or council of elders to enter premises; distinct from individual consent to enroll participants.

Community Consent (Misnomer)

The mistaken label given to leader permission; it does not grant consent to enroll individual participants.

Mystery Clients

Undercover evaluators used in social science research whose hidden identity violates standard informed consent rules due to deception.

Covert Research

Research conducted without participant knowledge, allowable only when reviewed, approved, and justified by compelling importance, safety, participant benefits, or avoiding social desirability bias.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of participants to modify their behavior or answers to appear favorable, used as a justification for covert research.

Substantive Ethical Requirements

Universal bioethical principles (respect for persons, beneficence, justice) that must be applied consistently across all study sites.

Procedural Ethical Requirements

Operational rules (such as written signatures, review committee composition) that vary according to cultural and institutional differences.

Plagiarism

Copying contents or data of a previous study and presenting it as one's own, even with occasional citation.

Falsification

Altering or changing the actual results or data of research.

Fabrication

Creating or inventing fake research data entirely.

Autonomy + Veracity

The ethical relationship combination that forms the foundation of Informed Consent.

Beneficence + Non-Maleficence

The ethical relationship combination that forms the foundation of Risk Benefit assessment.

Confidentiality + Justice

The ethical relationship combination that forms the foundation of Participant Rights.

PAP Code of Ethics

The ethical code established by the Psychological Association of the Philippines to provide a framework for responsible practice.

Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists

Global framework emphasizing dignity, competent caring, integrity, and social responsibility that serves as the foundation for psychological ethics codes.

Principle I (PAP Code)

Respect for the Dignity of Persons and Peoples; recognized as the most fundamental and universally found ethical principle.

Principle II (PAP Code)

Competent Caring for the Well-Being of Persons and Peoples; working for benefit, doing no harm, and maximizing potential benefits.

Principle III (PAP Code)

Integrity; maintaining honesty, truthfulness, open and accurate communication, and managing biases and conflicts of interest.

Principle IV (PAP Code)

Professional and Scientific Responsibilities to Society; contributing to knowledge about human behavior to improve individual and social conditions.

IUPsyS

International Union of Psychological Science, co-creator of the Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists.

IAAP

International Association of Applied Psychology, co-creator of the Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists.

APA Code of Ethics

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct published by the APA, first established in 1953 and revised 11 times.

Five Aspirational Principles (APA)

Beneficence & Nonmaleficence, Fidelity & Responsibility, Integrity, Justice, and Respect for People's Rights & Dignity.

Standard 8 (APA Code)

The specific section of the APA Ethics Code directly governing Research and Publication.

APA Standard 8.01

Institutional Approval; requires providing accurate proposal information and securing formal approval before conducting research.

APA Standard 8.02

Informed Consent to Research; mandates disclosing purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, confidentiality, incentives, and withdrawal rights.

APA Standard 8.07 & 8.08

Deception & Debriefing standards requiring deception to be justified, non-deceptive options unavailable, and debriefing provided promptly.

APA Standard 8.09

Humane Care & Use of Animals; mandates justifying animal use, using trained handling, and minimizing pain, stress, and privation.

APA Standard 8.10

Reporting Results; explicitly forbids data fabrication and requires prompt correction of errors via retraction, erratum, or correction.

APA Standard 8.11

Plagiarism; prohibits presenting portions of another's work or data as one's own, even with occasional citation.

APA Standard 8.12

Publication Credit; mandates that authorship reflect actual contribution, where institutional rank alone does not justify credit.

APA Standard 8.13 & 8.14

Duplicate Publication & Data Sharing; forbids republishing data as original and mandates sharing data for verification under reasonable conditions.

APA Standard 8.15 & 8.16

Reviewer Duties & Employer Rights; mandates respecting confidentiality of submitted manuscripts and handling institutional data appropriately.

RA 10029

The Philippine Psychology Act of 2009, making licensure mandatory so that only registered psychologists/psychometricians may legally practice.

July 24, 2009

The date when the revised Code of Ethics for Philippine Psychologists was ratified by the PAP Board of Directors.

PAP Section X.A

Rights & Dignity of Participants section emphasizing cultural sensitivity, non-verbal withdrawal cues, screening for harm, and international humanitarian law.

Assent

Informed agreement obtained from minors under 18 alongside formal informed consent from a parent or legal guardian.

Detained Persons (Consent Protection)

Special safeguards required to ensure prisoners or detainees can freely grant consent without institutional pressure.

Re-consent

The PAP requirement to re-obtain informed consent at multiple points across a longitudinal study timeline.

Debriefing (PAP Section X.H)

Process of explaining study contributions, correcting misconceptions, reestablishing trust, and honoring requests to destroy recordings/data.

Legal Anchoring Comparison

Contrast between APA (anchored in APA membership and state licensing boards) and PAP (anchored in Philippine law RA 10029).

Cultural Framing Comparison

Contrast between APA (focusing on individual rights) and PAP (incorporating community mores, customs, and peoples).

Data Privacy Act of 2012 (RA 10173)

Philippine law regulating personal data processing in full effect since September 2017, impacting research consent and data security.

National Privacy Commission (NPC)

Philippine regulatory body enforcing RA 10173 and providing advisory guidance regarding research exemptions and data subject rights.

Section 5(c) of the DPA

Provision establishing that the research exemption in RA 10173 is not a blanket pass and still requires compliance with ethical standards.

NEGHHR

National Ethical Guidelines for Health and Health-related Research in the Philippines.

Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act (RA 8371)

Philippine law protecting indigenous rights and mandating Free, Prior Informed Consent (FPIC) before research is conducted.

NCIP

National Commission on Indigenous Peoples, the agency regulating customary-law research and FPIC enforcement.

Free, Prior Informed Consent (FPIC)

Mandatory legal consent required under RA 8371 prior to collecting data or genetic samples from indigenous communities.

PHREB

Philippine Health Research Ethics Board, responsible for accrediting research ethics committees across the Philippines.

PHREB-NCIP Memorandum of Understanding (2016)

2016 agreement requiring researchers working with indigenous communities to secure both NCIP FPIC and accredited ethics committee clearance.

Moral Disengagement (AI Research)

Psychological mechanism where normalized misuse of generative AI tools leads students to rationalize academic dishonesty.

Right to Erasure

Data subject right under RA 10173 enabling participants to demand data deletion, complicating long-term research archiving.

Digital Informed Consent (E-Consent)

Process of obtaining consent online that must adhere to standard understandable language principles across language and literacy barriers.