comparative politics FINAL review vocab

PSC1001 with Kimberly Morgan.

political identity

orientation about oneself, one’s community when it comes to basic values concerning goals in politics. it can shape mobilization and speed of political change (voting, social movements, civil conflict, etc.) an example of this is radicals, liberals, conservatives, and reactionaries

primordialism

identities are innate, not chosen. they are physically embedded and inflexible. often explains ethnic conflicts as rooted in long-standing historical animosities. the significance is that our identities come within us. an example is tribal politics/ethnic divisions.

constructivism

identities are created through social and political processes; malleable, choice (rationality), given through social context. significance is that they emerge from shared experiences, institutions, and historical narratives. an example is the Hutu and Tutsi in Rwanda.

gender gap

systematic differences between men and women in political behavior, attitudes, and participation. this matters because women are at least half the population and since the 1970s, there has been a shift left. an example is that in voting, historically, women are more conservative.

reserved seats

a type of gender or minority quota where a number of seats in legislature are set aside for members of a specific group. it serves as a remedy for lack of representation. an example is India (women’s reservation bill): reserves 1/3 of seats in national and provincial legislature for women.

party candidate quotas

require political parties to include a minimum percentage of candidates from a specific group, usually women or minorities. the significance is that it is a remedy for lack of representation in regimes. quotas for women (cross cutting identity) make room in existing parties. exist as formal (law) and informal. an example is Mexico and France (both formal) have 50%.

populism

a thin centered ideology which advocates the sovereign rule of the people as a homogeneous body. the significance is that it lacks much ideological content and focuses on the common people demonizing elites. an example is 2000s left wing populism in Venezuela; Hugo Chavez trampling democratic institutions/ Brazil right wing populism (former president: Bolsonaro)

political violence

violence outside of state control that is politically motivated. significance is that it includes things like revolutions, civil war, riots, and strikes, but also more peaceful protests that operate beyond state sovereignty. an example is 9/11 attacks in 2001.

revolution

public seizure of the state in order to overturn the existing government and regime. the significance is that it involves public participation; leaders and the public play an important role in seizing power. the objective is not to remove those in power, but the entire regime. an example is the Russian revolution in 1917 which led to a communist state.

terrorism

the use of violence by non state actors against civilians in order to achieve a political goal. the significance is that the term is as much about the kind of political actor as it is about their actions and intent. an example is the 9/11 attacks (Al Qaeda)

westminster model

democratic political system characterized by parliamentary sovereignty, lacks checks and balances, SMD electoral system, and mostly two party system. the significance is that it brings consequences like a powerful government with no party discipline, very powerful PM and rapid policy change. an example is the UK

labour party

one of the UK’s two largest parties; since 2010, it has been the party in opposition. the significance is that it is a center-left political party, traditionally rooted in the working class, trade unions, and social democratic ideology. it emphasizes economic equality and redistribution, strong public service, and labor protections.

Conservative Party

one of the UK’s two largest parties; in government since 2010. the significance is that it has been in government since 2010, it is a center-right party that traditionally emphasizes free-market economics and traditional social values. it is one of the oldest and most electorally successful political parties in the democratic world.

reform UK

right wing populist political party in the UK which began as the Brexit party. the significance is that it usually has key beliefs like euroskepticism, nationalism, and a strong national sovereignty. it favors immigration controls and challenges two party dominance and forces parties to recalibrate policies on immigration, economy, etc.

Brexit

british exit from the European Union, realized in a 2016 referendum. the significance is that it reflects the rise of national identity politics and an anti-globalization sentiment. an example is internal party polarization (labour and conservative) which can lead to democratic backsliding.

fifth republic

France’s current regime, established under Charles de Gaulle, replacing the fourth republic and introducing a semi-presidential system. the significance is that it gives strong powers to the president to ensure stable executive leadership

semi presidentialism

a system of government in which a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet, with the president typically having significant executive powers and the prime minister being accountable to the legislature. the significance is that the president holds more power and is in charge of foreign affairs and calling referendums. The PM is chosen by the president and oversees the cabinet. runs daily affairs. an example is France’s fifth republic.

republicanism

the notion of “what it means to be french”, historically based on civic nationalism (french identity) and Laicité (Secularism). the significance is difficulties with identity such as ethnicity, gender, religion, and LGBTQ since France has barred religion from the public sphere and collects no data on it or ethnicity. Stems from The French Revolution and its goal (consequence) of eliminating all differences however, in practice ethnicity, gender, religion etc influence society heavily. an example is banning of the Hijab headscarf in public places. Immigration from Africa and the Middle East as threatening to the French identity (laicité). Polarization between left and right on issues. Rejection of multiculturalism

marine le pen

French politician from the far right party, against immigration, eurosceptic, anti-elite. the significance is that she used populism with immigration and other moderate policies to mobilize and shift the far right party to be more mainstream. an example is gender quotas in France (half must be women), however, it is not declared as a quota since France does not believe in differences—50% because it is half the population, not because of any inequalities

Emmanuel Macron

the president of France from the renaissance party (center-leftist party) dealing with challenges of stagnant economy, loss of identity (blamed on immigration and religion), and polarization. high disapproval rating (81%). the significance is that while having a low approval rating, this president was reelected because the only other option was from the far right party. an example is party line voting, 2017 party system collapses, center vs. far right, example of a centrist leader governing over an extremely polarized country where people feel strongly about their views

triple transition

the geographic, economic, and political transition that took place after the collapse of the Soviet Union which ultimately failed to transform Russia into a successful democracy. the significance is that political instability and chaos arose in forming a civil society with strong market reforms and institutions began to fail, shifting towards a desire for a stronger centralized government. endorsed by Putin. an example is that economically, the nation experienced a shock therapy that led to the rise of the wealthy and a capitalist system marked by cronyism and corruption.

vladimir putin

current president of Russia as of 2012. During his era, he centralized power and promoted a more authoritarian state which has now become a personalist autocracy with elections. the significance is that his strategy is to support right wing leaders in the west, weakening institutions like EU and NATO. He also uses cultural issues like woeness and LGBTQ+ to gain a following by exemplifying conservative values. An example is constitutional changes made in 2020 that may allow him to remain in power until 2036.

personalist autocracy

a type of authoritarian regime in which power is concentrated in the hands of a single leader, rather than being distributed through a dominant party. this is significant because it creates weak institutions, which makes the regime unstable in the long run if succession is unclear. an example is how Putin in Russia is the decision making authority even though elections still exist

mao zedong

1. Definition - Chinese politician within the Communist Party of China responsible for founding the People’s Republic of China and brought forth a new ideology called Maoism. (Mix of marxism and leninist ideology) 

2. Significance - Sought to bring down the bourgeois/corrupt elites with the Cultural Revolution by using youth in the Red Guard. This led to tension in achieving goals as well as periods of technocratic rule. 

3. Example - During the cultural revolution Zedong collectivized agriculture, meaning farmers could not choose the level of production, leading to 20-30 millions deaths due to famine.

deng xiaoping

1. Definition: a top leader from the earliest years of the CCP who had been stripped of his post (twice) during the cultural revolution. He led China after Mao Zedong’s death and is best known for launching economic reforms that shifted China to a market-oriented economy.

2. Significance: Deng Xiaoping introduced major economic reforms and opened China to global markets.

3. Example: He replaced collective farms with household-based agriculture, increasing food production

xi jinping

1. Definition: current president of the people’s republic of China; He individualized and centralized control, rejecting the collective decision-making model.

2. Significance: jinping has a maoist cult of personality, targeting opponents and spreading ideological conformity

3. Example: In 2018, he abolished presidential term limits, allowing him to potentially rule indefinitely.

Chinese Communist Party

1. Definition: refers to the political system in China where the CCP controls all state institutions. In this system, the party leads the state, rather than the state being independent.

2. Significance: because the CCP held control over all branches of government, it created political stability and centralized control.

3. Example: Currently,  Xi Jinping holds the general secretary and prescient positions simultaneously, showing how the party-state concentrates authority.

cultural revolution

1. Definition: political and social campaign launched by Mao Zedong to reassert his control over the CCP and reignite the class struggle, mobilizing people. Used red guards to attack enemies and dehumanize them. 

2. Significance. It was a decade-long campaign to ensure ideological “purity”, which left a long-term impact on Chinese society.

3. Example: Millions formed red guard units that attacked officials and carried out “struggle sessions.”

Mohandas Gandhi

1. Definition: Indian pro-democracy nationalist leader most known for developing and practicing non-violent resistance. He built a board-based political party and made congress party into a mass party

2. Significance: He was the architect of nonviolent civil disobedience as a political method

Congress Party

1. Definition: political party founded in 1885 that led India’s independence movements and later became India’s governing party. They formed a secularist norm that kept religion from dominating politics and fostered a civic national identity.

2. Significance: The congress party was a leadership committed to democracy.

BJP Hindu Nationalism

1. Definition: Indian people’s party; Hindu nationalist party brought to government in the 2014 general election and reelected in 2019. It is currently the largest political party in India and has been led by Narenda Modi since 2014. The Hindu nationalist party has been on the rise since mid-1990s 

2. Significance: drawing its strength from the upper-caste Hindu groups, eventually the BJP was attracting everyone under Hindu nationalism

Narendra Modi

1. Definition: Indian politician who served as the prime minister of India since 2014 and is the leading figure of the BJP. He is strongly known for his charisma, economic modernization efforts, and promoting Hindu nationalist ideology. 

2. Significance: critics argue that his leadership has weakened institutional checks and given way for authoritarianism.

3. Example: australia event “modi is boss”

second republic

1. Definition: the term used to describe the new political order after the rise of the BJP Hindu nationalist vision. It prioritizes majoritarianism over liberalism, and in doing so it tramples liberal freedoms. 

2. Significance: The second republic repudiates secular norms and views India as a “civilization state”

1917 constitution

1. Definition: after the revolution of 1910, the constitution of 1917 helped form foundations by establishing political and legal frameworks for modern Mexico.

2. Significance: It created liberal institutions, commitment to social rights, and one-party system. It also created an interventionist state. 

PRI

1. Definition: partido revolucionario institucional created to unify revolutionary factions and maintain long-term political control through corporatism and clientilism

2. Significance: ideology is to preserve power by incorporating social groups, coopting elites, and clientilism.

3. Example: presidency of Enrique Pena Nieto (2012-18)

AMLO

1. Definition: Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador, a left-populist leader, who served as president of Mexico from 2018 to 2024. He was very into the common man image and welfare benefits. He was also against “the mafia in power” and “enemies of the people”.

2. Significance: many critics said he used populism to subvert democracy and personalized power, attacking democratic institutions (judiciary, electoral agencies.

3. Example: Morena party; Claudia Sheinbaum continues AMLOs reforms (AMLO picks successor “fingertap”)

gender quotas

1. Definition: rules or policies that require a minimum number or percentage of political candidates or parliamentary seats to be filled by women

2. Significance: they are designed to increase women’s representation in political institutions 

3. Example: in Mexico and France, parties must nominate 50% women; result: near gender parity in congress

Claudia Sheinbaum

1. Definition: first female president of Mexico in the Morena political party. She is viewed as the political heir to her mentor, then-president Obrador (AMLO), given her affiliation and shared base.

2. Significance: She stands at the intersection of gender breakthrough and minority representation in Mexico + rise of left-wing populism. Her rise reflects a shift in political norms and policy priorities. 

3. Example: impact on representation and democracy in Latin America. These elections continued the decline of Mexican democracy.

Biafra

1. Definition: a secessionist Igbo-led state in southeastern Nigeria whose attempt at independence triggered the Nigerian Civil war.

2. Significance: It shaped Nigerian national unity, exposed ethnic divisions, and remains central to debates about identity and separation in Nigeria today.

3. Example: Biafran war (1967-1970) civil war which declared independence; ~1-2 million killed due to starvation.

Resource curse

1. Definition: a paradox in which countries with abundant natural resources often experience poor economic development, corruption, and political instability.

2. Significance: resource wealth allows governments to avoid taxation (less representation), fuels patronage, and can trigger conflict over resource control.

3. Example: Nigeria discovered oil in 1958 and by 1980, agriculture exports drop from 80 to 60% + also occurred in Mexico (1970) with the oil boom and bust.

federal character principle

1. Definition: Nigerian quota system designed to ease ethnic tension by requiring the president to appoint ministers and civil servants from each Nigerian state.

2. Significance: each ethnic group is allotted a certain portion of federal positions based on its regional population. Unfortunately, though it may have eased ethnic rivalries, it has bloated the bureaucracy and increased corruption.

3. Example: every Nigerian state must have at least one federal minister in the national cabinet.

2023 presidential elections

1. Definition: the 2023 presidential elections were a transfer of power to someone who is not a military general. It induced a mobilization of young people and did not have much election-related violence

2. Significance: It also made sectional divides less important.

3. Example: Bola Tinibu is President of Nigeria since May 2023

youth quake

1. Definition: a youthquake is a major political or social change by an upsurge in youth political movement. 

2. Significance: Africa has the world’s youngest population – and some of the world’s oldest leaders, many of whom have held power for decades. Several protests in Kenya and Tanzania might lead to an African youth awakening.

3. Example: Arab spring via facebook – now GenZ through discord and tiktok

guardian council

1. Definition: appointed body that vets candidates for office and can overturn legislation. It is made up of 12 individuals who serve six-year phased terms.

2. Significance: The powers of the guardian council are significant; they can review all legislation that derives from the Majlis to “ensure compatibility with Islam and the constitution, and can send legislation back.

revolutionary guard

1. Definition: a paramilitary force charged with defending the regime from domestic and internal enemies that emerged from the 1979 revolution.

2. Significance: Originally composed of several thousand men from various militias and groups that had sprung up around the revolution. During the Iran-Iraq war, it expanded in size to fight on the front lines.

basij

1. Definition: “People’s militia”, which serves as public morals police

2. Significance: formed shortly after the revolution as a grassroots civil defense force. Its members were poorly trained and ill-equipped but imbued with religious and nationalist fervor; known for its “human wave” attacks against the Iraqi front lines.

Mahsa Amini protest movement

1. Definition: A Kurdish woman who was detained and later died while in custody of the Morality police (Basij) due to not properly covering her hair with the hijab. This event sparked protests against the Iranian government and demanded bodily autonomy. 

2. Significance: Strong resistance and civil society/movements even in a highly repressive nation like Iran. Ie the Basij, Revolutionary guard etc.

3. Example: The Amini protests come after over four decades of protest and resistance by women in Iran. The reason that the Amini protest was successful can be linked back to Charlotte Lee’s article about social movements in which she highlights the framing of issues, political opportunity, and mobilization.