2.2-2.7 ap psych flashcards

Accommodation

The process by which existing schemas are modified or new schemas are created to incorporate new information.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution to a problem, often used in problem-solving.

Assimilation

The process of incorporating new experiences into existing schemas without changing the schema.

Availability heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a specific topic or decision.

Concepts

Mental categories that group objects, events, or ideas that share common properties.

Convergent thinking

A type of thinking that focuses on finding a single, correct solution to a problem.

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas or solutions.

Critical thinking

The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment.

Divergent thinking

A type of thinking that generates multiple, unique solutions to a problem.

Executive functions

Cognitive processes that include planning, decision-making, problem-solving, and controlling attention.

Framing

The way information is presented, which can influence perceptions and decisions.

Functional fixedness

A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.

Gambler's fallacy

The belief that past events can influence the probability of future independent events.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making.

Mental set

A tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on past experiences.

Priming

The activation of certain associations in memory, which can influence perception and behavior.

Prototypes

The best example or representation of a category.

Representativeness heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on how closely something matches a prototype.

Stereotype

A widely held but oversimplified belief or idea about a particular group of people.

Sunk-cost fallacy

The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made.

Central executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and processing.

Echoic memory

A type of sensory memory that retains auditory information for a brief period.

Effortful processing

The encoding of information that requires attention and conscious effort.

Encoding

The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Episodic memory

A type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of specific events or experiences.

Explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.

Iconic memory

A type of sensory memory that retains visual information for a very short duration.

Implicit memory

Memory that does not require conscious thought, often reflected in skills and conditioned responses.

Levels of processing model

A theory suggesting that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory.

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

Long-term potentiation

A long-lasting increase in synaptic strength following high-frequency stimulation of a chemical synapse.

Multi-store model

A model that describes memory as consisting of three stores: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

Phonemic processing

The processing of information based on the sound of words, which aids in encoding.

Phonological loop

A component of working memory that deals with verbal and auditory information.

Primary memory system

The initial stage of memory where information is temporarily held.

Procedural memory

A type of implicit memory that involves skills and actions, such as riding a bike.

Prospective memory

The ability to remember to perform actions in the future.

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing into consciousness information stored in memory.

Semantic processing

The processing of information based on its meaning, which enhances memory retention.

Semantic memory

A type of explicit memory that involves facts and general knowledge.

Sensory memory

The initial, brief storage of sensory information.

Short-term memory

A limited capacity memory system that can hold information for a short duration.

Storage

The process of maintaining information in memory over time.

Structural processing

The shallowest level of processing that focuses on the physical structure of words.

Visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory that handles visual and spatial information.

Working memory

A system for temporarily holding and manipulating information.

Working memory model

A model that describes the structure and function of working memory, including components like the central executive and the phonological loop.

Chunking

A memory strategy that involves breaking down information into smaller, manageable units to enhance recall.

Distributed practice

A learning strategy that spreads out study sessions over time, leading to better retention compared to cramming.

Encoding

The process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.

Massed practice

A learning technique that involves studying a large amount of material in a short period, often leading to poorer retention.

Memory consolidation

The process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term memories.

Method of loci

A mnemonic device that involves visualizing items to be remembered in specific physical locations.

Mnemonic devices

Techniques that aid memory by associating new information with familiar concepts or patterns.

Primacy effect

The tendency to remember the first items in a list better than those in the middle.

Recency effect

The tendency to remember the most recent items in a list better than those that were presented earlier.

Serial position effect

The phenomenon where recall accuracy is influenced by an item's position in a list, typically showing better recall for items at the beginning and end.

Spacing effect

The phenomenon where information is better retained when study sessions are spaced out over time rather than massed together.

Alzheimer's disease

A progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects memory and cognitive function.

Amnesia

A deficit in memory caused by brain injury, disease, or psychological trauma.

Anterograde amnesia

The inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia.

Autobiographical memory

A type of explicit memory that involves recollection of personal experiences and specific events in one's life.

Elaborative rehearsal

A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the information and making connections to other information.

Infantile amnesia

The inability of adults to retrieve memories from early childhood, typically before the age of 3.

Maintenance rehearsal

A memory retention technique that involves repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.

Memory retention

The ability to maintain and recall information over time.

Retrograde amnesia

The inability to recall memories that were formed before the onset of amnesia.

Context-dependent memory

The phenomenon where recall is improved when in the same context or environment as when the memory was formed.

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, often referred to as 'thinking about thinking.'

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall memories that are consistent with one's current mood.

Recall

The process of retrieving information from memory without cues.

Recognition

The process of identifying previously learned information when presented with it.

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing into consciousness information stored in memory.

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that help in the retrieval of a memory by providing hints or prompts.

State-dependent memory

The phenomenon where memory retrieval is more effective when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as when the memory was formed.

Testing effect

The improved memory performance that results from retrieving information during testing rather than simply studying it.

Constructive memory

A type of memory that involves the reconstruction of past events based on current knowledge and beliefs.

Encoding failure

The inability to recall information due to insufficient encoding during the initial learning process.

Forgetting curve

A graphical representation showing the decline of memory retention over time.

Imagination inflation

The phenomenon where imagining an event increases confidence that it actually occurred.

Memory consolidation

The process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term memories.

Misinformation effect

The alteration of a person's memory of an event due to misleading information presented after the event.

Proactive interference

A phenomenon where old memories interfere with the retrieval of new memories.

Repression

A defense mechanism that involves unconsciously blocking out painful or traumatic memories.

Retroactive interference

A phenomenon where new information interferes with the retrieval of old memories.

Source amnesia

The inability to remember the source of a memory, leading to confusion about its origin.

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

A temporary inability to retrieve a word or name from memory, despite feeling that it is known.

Automatic Processing

A cognitive process that occurs without conscious thought, allowing for quick and efficient handling of information.