pharm test 2 summarized

What are the general rules for administering antibiotics?

Check for allergies, complete the full course, and use backup contraception if oral contraceptives are affected.

What does “ataxia” mean?

Loss of coordination—trouble with balance, walking, or controlled movements.

How many membranes do Gram-positive bacteria have?

One.

How many membranes do Gram-negative bacteria have?

Two.

Examples of penicillins?

Amoxicillin, Penicillin G, Nafcillin, Piperacillin.

Major side effects of penicillins?

GI upset, superinfection, and kidney disease.

Serious side effect of penicillins?

C. difficile-associated diarrhea.

Important administration rules for penicillins?

“Give medications safely by not crushing extended‑release forms, letting children chew chewable tablets, placing infant drops on the tongue or mixing them with a small amount of juice or formula, and always making sure the full dose is taken.”

Examples of cephalosporins?

Cephalexin, cefazolin, cefaclor, cefoxitin, cefotetan, ceftriaxone, cefotaxime, cefepime.

Major side effects of cephalosporins?

GI upset and thrombophlebitis.

Serious side effects of cephalosporins?

C. difficile diarrhea and bleeding (especially with cefotetan).

Examples for carbapenems?

Imipenem/cilastatin, Meropenem, Ertapenem.

Major side effects of carbapenems?

GI upset, thrombophlebitis, and superinfection.

Serious side effect of carbapenems?

Seizures.

Important administration rules for carbapenems?

must be given only by the prescribed IM or IV route without interchanging forms, and IV doses must be infused using the recommended dilution and rate.

Main medication of glycopeptide antibiotic?

Vancomycin.

Major side effects of glycopeptide antibiotic?

Red Man Syndrome and thrombophlebitis.

Serious side effects of glycopeptide antibiotic?

Nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity.

Important rule for like administration of glycopeptide antibiotic?

Monitor peak and trough levels.

Examples for Tetracycline?

Tetracycline, Doxycycline, Minocycline.

Major side effects of Tetracycline?

Photosensitivity, tooth discoloration, bone-growth effects, GI upset, superinfection, esophageal ulceration.

Serious side effect of Tetracycline?

Hepatotoxicity.

Administration rules of Tetracycline?

Take on empty stomach (1 hr before or 2 hr after meals).; avoid dairy, iron, antacids; avoid in pregnancy and children < 8 years; stay upright 30 min.

Examples for Macrolides?

Erythromycin, Azithromycin, Clarithromycin.

Major side effects of Macrolides?

GI upset, ototoxicity, superinfection.

Serious side effect of Macrolides?

QT prolongation (ventricular dysrhythmias).

What are the important administration rules for macrolides?

• Erythromycin: empty stomach (1 hr before or 2 hr after meals).

• May take with food if GI upset occurs.

Examples for Aminoglycosides?

Gentamicin, Tobramycin, Amikacin, Neomycin.

Serious side effects of Aminoglycosides?

Ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity.

Important rule for administration of Aminoglycosides?

Monitor peak/trough levels and BUN/creatinine.

Example for Oxazolidinones?

Linezolid.

Major side effects of Oxazolidinones?

Headache, GI upset, anemia.

Serious side effect of Oxazolidinones?

Bone marrow suppression.

Key precautions for administration of Oxazolidinones?

Avoid tyramine-rich foods and do not take MAOIs; monitor CBC weekly.

Examples of Oxazolidinones?

Ciprofloxacin, Levofloxacin, Moxifloxacin.

Major side effects Fluoroquinolones?

Photosensitivity, dizziness, headache,GI upset.

Serious side effects of Fluoroquinolones?

Achilles tendon rupture, seizures, hepatotoxicity, QT prolongation, foot pain.

Administration rules of Fluoroquinolones?

• Separate from antacids, iron, calcium/dairy, and sucralfate — 2 hr before or 6 hr after.

• Basically: do NOT take together; separate in time.

• Do NOT take under 18 years old.

Examples for Sulfonamides?

TMP‑SMX, Sulfadiazine, Silver sulfadiazine.

Major side effects of Sulfonamides?

Photosensitivity, crystalluria, nausea/vomiting.

Serious side effects of Sulfonamides?

Stevens‑Johnson syndrome, bone marrow suppression, kernicterus.

Administration rules of Sulfonamides?

Drink plenty of fluids (Drink 1,200–1,500 mL fluid/day); avoid in pregnancy and infants < 2 months.

Examples for Urinary Tract Antiseptics?

Nitrofurantoin, Methenamine.

Major side effects of Urinary Tract Antiseptics?

GI upset, photosensitivity, harmless brown urine.

Serious side effects of Urinary Tract Antiseptics?

Pulmonary toxicity/fibrosis, peripheral neuropathy, blood dyscrasias.

Administration rules of Urinary Tract Antiseptics?

• Take with food or milk.

• Swallow capsules whole — do NOT crush or open.

What are bacteria?

Single‑celled organisms; some can cause infection.

What infections can bacteria cause?

UTI, bacterial pneumonia, TB, staph infections.

What medications treat bacterial infections?

Antibiotics / antibacterials.

What are examples of antibiotics used for bacterial infections?

Penicillins, cephalosporins, aminoglycosides.

What are viruses?

Microorganisms that require a host cell to reproduce.

What infections can viruses cause?

Influenza, herpes, HIV, viral hepatitis.

What medications treat viral infections?

Antivirals.

What are examples of antiviral medications?

Acyclovir, oseltamivir.

What are fungi?

Yeasts or molds.

What infections can fungi cause?

Candidiasis, athlete’s foot, ringworm.

What medications treat fungal infections?

Antifungals.

What are examples of antifungal medications?

Fluconazole, terbinafine, amphotericin B.

What are protozoa?

Single‑celled organisms that may be transmitted through food, water, or insects.

What infections can protozoa cause?

Malaria, giardiasis, amoebiasis.

What medications treat protozoal infections?

Antiprotozoals.

What are examples of antiprotozoal medications?

Metronidazole, tinidazole.

What are helminths?

Parasitic worms.

What infections can helminths cause?

Tapeworm, roundworm, and hookworm infections.

What medications treat helminth (worm) infections?

Anthelmintics.

What are examples of anthelmintic medications?

Mebendazole, albendazole.

What are prions?

Abnormal infectious proteins.

What infections do prions cause?

Creutzfeldt‑Jakob disease.

What medications treat prion diseases?

No effective treatment.

What is an anti‑infective?

A general term for medications used against infectious organisms.

What do antibiotics treat?

BACTERIAL infections.

How are bacteria classified?

By oxygen requirement and cell‑wall structure.

What does aerobic mean?

Requires oxygen.

What does anaerobic mean?

Does not require oxygen.

Where are aerobic bacteria found?

Oxygen‑rich tissues.

Where are anaerobic bacteria found?

Intestines, deep wounds, abscesses.

Examples of aerobic infections?

Pneumonia, TB, UTIs.

Examples of anaerobic infections?

Abscesses, intra‑abdominal infections, gangrene.

What medications treat aerobic bacterial infections?

Penicillins, cephalosporins.

What medications treat anaerobic bacterial infections?

Metronidazole, clindamycin, and some penicillins and carbapenems.

What does the Gram stain classify bacteria by?

Differences in their cell‑wall structure.

How do Gram‑positive and Gram‑negative bacteria differ in their peptidoglycan layer?

Gram‑positive: Thick peptidoglycan layer. Gram‑negative: Thin peptidoglycan layer.

Do Gram‑positive and Gram‑negative bacteria have an outer membrane?

Gram‑positive: No outer membrane.

Gram‑negative: Yes, they have an outer membrane.

What colors do Gram‑positive and Gram‑negative bacteria stain?

Gram‑positive: Purple
Gram‑negative: Pink/red

What are the general characteristics of Gram‑positive and Gram‑negative bacteria?

Gram‑positive: Often more susceptible to antibiotics that attack the cell wall.

Gram‑negative: Outer membrane makes many organisms harder to treat.

What are examples of beta‑lactam antibiotics?

Penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems.

What is beta‑lactamase and what does it do?

It’s an enzyme produced by some bacteria that breaks down or inactivates beta‑lactam antibiotics, causing antibiotic resistance.

Why combine a beta‑lactamase inhibitor with an antibiotic?

To protect the antibiotic from being destroyed by beta‑lactamase.

What is amoxicillin + clavulanic acid?

A combination of an antibiotic (amoxicillin) and a beta‑lactamase inhibitor (clavulanic acid).

What Gram coverage do broad‑spectrum and narrow‑spectrum antibiotics have?

Broad‑spectrum: May affect both Gram‑positive and Gram‑negative bacteria.

Narrow‑spectrum: More targeted coverage.

When are broad‑spectrum and narrow‑spectrum antibiotics useful?

Broad‑spectrum: When the organism is not yet known or in severe infection.

Narrow‑spectrum: When the organism has been identified.

What are examples of broad‑spectrum antibiotics?

Amoxicillin, tetracyclines.

What are examples of narrow‑spectrum antibiotics?

Penicillin, vancomycin.

What is a major concern with broad‑spectrum antibiotics?

Greater disruption of normal flora, leading to superinfection and resistance.

What is a major concern with narrow‑spectrum antibiotics?

Limited effectiveness against organisms outside its spectrum.

What’s the easy way to remember broad vs. narrow?

BROAD = many; NARROW = specific.

What do bactericidal and bacteriostatic antibiotics do, and what happens to the bacteria?

Bactericidal: Kill bacteria → the bacteria die. Bacteriostatic: Stop bacteria from growing/reproducing → the immune system must eliminate the bacteria.

What are examples of bactericidal antibiotics?

Penicillins, aminoglycosides.

What are examples of bacteriostatic antibiotics?

Tetracyclines.

When are bactericidal and bacteriostatic antibiotics preferred?

Bactericidal: Preferred when infection is severe or the immune system is compromised.

Bacteriostatic: Preferred when the immune system can help clear the infection.