HES 101 (Sept.4) Human Physiology (Biochemistry)

What is the physiological goal of the body?

maintain homeostasis

what is homeostasis?

Maintaining a stable internal environment (within a given range)

how does our body maintain homeostasis?

through feedback loops

what are the types of feedback loops?

negative and positive feedback loops

what is a negative feedback loop?

system where output signals the system to stop changing (stop producing enzymes, hormones...)

what are the steps of the negative feedback loop?

the stimulus allows for the receptor to realize that variable is not at homeostasis> receptor sends signal to control centre> control centre decides that variable is above/below homeostasis> control centre sends signal to effector> the effector will take action to become set point

what is a positive feedback loop?

once it is stimulated, it just keeps going (think oxytocin to induce labor)

what are the steps of the positive feedback loop?

a change/stimulus is detected> signal of the detected change is sent to control centre> control centre processes signal and creates a response amplifies original change> effector continues to amplify change until endpoint/external factor intervenes

what are the 4 major elements of the human body?

hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen

what are the 7 mineral elements of the human body?

sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and sulfur (2C,2P,2S,1M)

what are the 13 trace element of the human body?

iron, copper, iodine, zinc, selenium (Se), chromium, cobalt, manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), boron, nickel, silicon, vanadium (V) (1B,3C,2I,2M,1N,2S,1V,1Z)

what is a fatty acid considered?

organic compound

How is an ionic bond formed?

when one or more electrons are transferred from one metal atom to a non-metal atom

How is a covalent bond formed?

2 non-metal atoms share their electrons

covalent bonds can be...

polar or non-polar

what happens with non-polar covalent bonds?

they share equal the electrons equally because they pull on them equally

what happens with polar covalent bonds?

1 atom pulls electrons more strongly, so the sides remain unequal

what is a solute?

A solid that dissolves in a liquid

what is a solvent?

liquid that dissolves the solute

what is an acid?

When put into solution it gives H+ to solution

what happens when there is an increase of H+ in solution?

It will decrease the pH of solution (when acid is added)

what happens when there is a decrease of H+ in solution?

It will increase the pH of solution (when base is added)

what is a base?

When put into solution it takes H+ from solution

what do buffers do?

they prevent large changes in pH when acid/base is added to solution by hiding/revealing H+ ions

How is a salt formed?

Any metal cation and nonmetal anion that have formed an ionic bond

how are electrolytes formed?

The separated cations and anions from a salt that is dissolved in water to form a solution

what do inorganic compounds generally not contain?

don't contain carbon bonded to hydrogen

what do organic compounds generally contain?

contains carbon bonded to hydrogen

what are the 4 major organic compounds found in the human body?

carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleotides (aka micronutrients)

what is a monomer?

single units that can be combined to build larger molecules

what is a polymer?

larger molecules made up of many monomers linked together

what are carbs made up of?

made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

what is the function of carbs in the body?

fuel for energy production, structure of the cell, is the backbone of genetic material (DNA and RNA)

what are monosaccharides?

monomers from which all carbs are made

examples of carbs:

deoxyribose, ribose, glucose, fructose, galactose

chemical formula name of deoxyribose

C5H10O4

chemical formula name of ribose

C5H10O5

chemical formula name of glucose

C6H12O6

chemical formula name of fructose

C6H12O6 and isomer of glucose (pentagon shaped)

chemical formula name of galactose

C6H12O6 and isomer of glucose (hexagon shaped)

How are disaccharides formed?

formed by union of 2 monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis

How does dehydration synthesis work?

when 2 monosaccharides has H2O removed from it, to create a disaccharide

how does hydrolysis work?

when a disaccharide has H2O added to it, to create 2 monosaccharides

what is a polysaccharide?

many monosaccharides joined to one another by dehydration synthesis

what is glycogen?

storage polymer of glucose found in skeletal muscle and liver cells

what is a lipid?

group of non-polar hydrophobic molecules composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen, with much less oxygen

what are fatty acids?

they are lipid monomers, 4-20 carbon atoms long, bonded to a COOH group, may have none, 1, or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon chain

how many double bonds are in a saturated fatty acid

0 double bonds

how many double bonds are in a monounsaturated fatty acid

1 double bond

what are triglycerides?

three fatty acids linked by dehydration synthesis to modified 3-carbon carbohydrate glycerol

what do triglycerides do?

act as a storage molecule for fatty acids in the body

What is a phospholipid?

molecule with polar group (phosphate head) and nonpolar group (fatty acid tail) is amphiphilic

what are steroids?

nonpolar molecules with a backbone 4-ring hydrocarbon structure called steroid nucleus

examples of steroids

cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen

proteins are...

macromolecules made of chains of amino acids, polypeptides folded into more complex structures to become functional

protein functions in the body?

enzymes, structural roles, cell communication (receptors, transporters), muscle contraction, metabolism for fuel, hormones

examples of amino acids

glycine, tryptophan (nonpolar), cysteine (polar)

what are the 4 levels of protein structure?

Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary

define the primary structure of protein:

the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide

define the secondary structure of protein:

amino acids of the protein interact via H bonds to form an alpha helix or a beta-pleated sheet

define the tertiary structure of protein:

Interactions between R groups help to determine the shape the protein assumes after its folded

define the quaternary structure of protein:

the assembly of 2 or more polypeptide chains folded into the functional protein

what do some proteins lack?

they sometimes lack the quaternary structure

what is the product of translation from DNA to Amino Acids

the product is the primary structure

where does DNA transcription take place

it takes place in the nucleus

what is protein translation via ribosomes?

the process of synthesizing proteins based on the mRNA instructions, occurs in the rough ER and Cytosol

what happens in the protein's secondary structure?

Segments of the polypeptide are folded together through Hydrogen bonds

what happens in the protein's tertiary structure?

More twisting, folding and coiling of the peptide chain. Stabilized by Hydrogen Bonds

Monomers of nucleic acids do what?

make up genetic material

what is a nucleotide structure?

a nitrogenous base with hydrocarbon ring structure

Purines:

Adenine and Guanine

Pyrimidines:

cytosine, thymine, uracil

Five-carbon pentose sugars:

ribose and deoxyribose

what does ATP stand for?

adenosine triphosphate

what does ATP do?

is the main source of chemical energy in the body

what is ATP made of?

Adenine attached to ribose + 3 phosphate groups

what does AMP stand for?

adenosine monophosphate

what does ADP stand for?

adenosine diphosphate

What is DNA composed of?

composed of two long chains of nucleotides that twist around each other to form double helix

what does DNA contain?

Contains genes for protein synthesis