CTs realism and liberalism knowledge flashcards

Realism is a spectrum of ideas that emerged in the 20th century as an academic theory of international relations. The theory provoked …

the first ‘great debate’ between liberals and realists. It has become a dominant theory in world politics throughout the history of academic international relations.

Although realism emerged as an academic discipline in the 20th century, the ideas of the theory date back at least to the …

4th century BC.Thucydides and the Peloponnesian war (431-404 BC) saw the growth of Athens and alarm sparked in Sparta, making the war seem inevitable.

Realism has 4 key ideas:

1. international anarchy

2. statism

3. national interest

4. survival

The international system is anarchic: Self-help states have to rely on themselves and their own resources to survive/thrive. The structure of the global government means relations between states are generally characterised by uncertainty and suspicion. This leads to …

the key ideas of a balance of power to ensure some stability. Key critics argue that instability and state selfishness isn’t inevitable. Instead its conscious policy decision taken by states. To prove this, critics argue sometimes states select other options eg. collective security or genuine altruistic actions.

Statism: The centrepiece of realism - states are the key element and most significant ‘actor’ in IR (all other actors in world politics are of lesser significance). States are sovereign with sole authority over their territory. The prevalence of anarchy relates to both …

the order within states and disorder outside states. The increase of anarchy must be responded to with increased state power. Key critics' challenges to the importance of state power come from ‘above’ and ‘below’ the ordinary citizens. If realism is true, sovereign states can’t respond to collective global problems - famine, environmental degradation and human rights abuses.

National interest: States foreign policies are run to benefit the ‘national interest’ only… National interest should be used when deciding all foreign policy, Donald Trump’s ‘America First’ slogan sums up this approach eg. his threat to NATO members unless they ‘pay their way’. It’s hard to see any …

Chinese or Russian foreign policy that wasn’t purely motivated by self-interest. Realists say wars should not be fought unless they are in the ‘national interest’ - some opposed USA’s war in Afghanistan and Iraq as a result.

Survival (i): Survival is the primary objective of all states: all other goals such as economic prosperity are secondary or ‘low politics’. The key criticism is that there are no limits to what actions a state can take in the name of necessity? The principle of survival causes …

the security dilemma. As a state builds up its military (whether defensive or offensive) it clearly presents a greater threat to other states. As a result those other states build up their military too. As a result an ‘arms race’ may occur - as happened in the Cold War or in the Anglo-German naval race pre-WW1. A key example of this is Athens and Sparta in the Peloponnesian War.

Survival (ii): Realists believe that conflict can be contained by a balance of power between states. This means that the biggest factor affecting world peace is the number of ‘great powers and their allies’ power weighing up against each other. The Cold War was …

described by John Gaddis as the ‘long peace’ arguing that never before in history have two such ideologically opposed nations like the Soviet Union and the USA and never fight. It was the balance of power that allowed the rivalry to remain cold rather than hot, which would’ve led to WW3.

Realist theorists have given little attention to society. This reflects their focus falling on the state, which they view as a ‘black box’ in that internal, social, political, constitutional and cultural arrangements are irrelevant to its behaviour in the global system. As realists view states as…

 robust, autonomous units that are capable of extracting resources from society and imposing their will on society, foreign policy is determined first and foremost by considerations of power and security.

Relations between and amongst states are essentially ‘strategic’ rather than ‘social’:

the international system is characterised by competition and struggle, not by regular patterns of social interaction that develop through the emergence of norms, shared values and a willingness to cooperate.

Thucydides was an ancient Greek historian of the fifth century BC and father of political realism. He studied the Peloponnesian war and observed that the strategic interaction of states determined the pattern of their relations. His impact was …

 timeless on the way contemporary analysts perceive IR (International relations). The wars contained propositions that could be brought into a coherent framework identified by his political theory.  His work first described IR as anarchic, immoral and lacking in regulation and justice.

Later writers have endorsed his arguments that “might make right”. Later realists, such as …

Machiavelli and Hobbes, agree with Thucydides that “might makes right” is an intoxicating precept for states to indulge in.

The Peloponnese Wars: He says the war was a result of change in the international balance of war, brought about by the increasing power of the Athenian city states, which tried to exceed the power of Sparta. “What made the war inevitable was the growth of Athenian power and the fear which this cause Sparta”. Melian Dialogue wrote that …

in interstate relations, “the strong do what they have the power to do and the weak accept what they have to accept”. For him, IR allows the mighty to do as they please and forces the weak to suffer as they must.

The connection between the Peloponnese Wars, the Cold War and modern American IR thinking:

• Also illustrated the cold war phenomenon of “polarisation” among states - forcing many states to ally with one major power or the other, for fear of isolation and conquest otherwise. 

• Shows the relevance of his realist theory in today's world and helped guide American diplomacy during the Cold War.

• In 1947, Secretary of State George Marshall said “I doubt seriously whether a man can think with full wisdom and with deep convictions regarding certain of the basic issues today who has not at least reviewed in his mind the period of the Peloponnese war and the fall of Athens.

Structural or neo realism argues that it is the current structure of the international state system that forces states to act the way they do. Therefore, state actions are not fundamentally governed by selfishness. The role of human nature is therefore downplayed. Instead …

all states are ‘locked in a machine’ of the international state system and must struggle to  survive as a result. Structural realists do accept traditional assumptions such as force is important and effective - the balance of power is a central mechanism for order. Kenneth Waltz and John Mearsheimer are both structural realists.

Realism sees human nature as the root of conflict, arguing that people are inherently power-seeking and selfish, and this is reflected in state behaviour. Neorealism, however, rejects human nature as the main driver of conflict, claiming that it is the anarchic structure of the international system that forces states to compete. Realism focuses on …

the role of individual leaders and moral choices, seeing state behaviour as influenced by human decision-making and historical context. Neorealism emphasises the international system over individuals, arguing that state behaviour is shaped by structural constraints, not personalities or morals.

In realism, states seek power because of ambition and fear, often pursuing power for its own sake. In neorealism, states seek power primarily for security, aiming to survive in an anarchic system, not out of aggression.  Both agree that …

 the international system is anarchic and that the balance of power is essential, but they differ on why states behave as they do. Realism allows for more variation in state behavior, depending on leadership and ethics, while neorealism argues that all states behave similarly under systemic pressures.

Strengths of realist thinking include that:

• States ,despite the onset of globalisation, remain central features in IR. States and nationalism seem to be dominant ideas.

• Realism provides an insight into the behaviour of states regardless of who is in control.

• A focus on the role of states makes the world easier to understand and predict since there are far fewer ‘variables’ compared to liberalists who argue the importance of non-state actors.

• It is generally speaking, simple and easy to digest.

• The prevalence of conflict suggests its weaknesses.

Weaknesses of realist thinking include that:

• States as key actors - loses sight of non-state actors in IR.

• Too much emphasis on military power (hard power)

• A historical state (states didn’t always exist in its current form, state as an evolving historical entity?) 

• Assumes that all states are sovereign.

Kenneth Waltz (Author of Theory of International Politics 1979): Defensive realist thinker. He believes that when two major powers (bipolarity) dominate (like the USA and USSR in the Cold War) , it’s more stable when many rival powers compete for domination (multipolarity). This is because …

two powers can negotiate decision making quicker and more easily rather than many different powers. This may provide a solution to the security dilemma. The international system is an anarchy with no central authority above national-state level. “Fewer states means clearer lines of competition” - Waltz

Hedley Bull (Author of Anarchical Society 1977): An anarchical society will regulate itself by creating a ‘society of states’. A society of states has common interests which they will benefit from one another. States then …

become influenced by one another so they act as part of a whole and help the functioning of society. “The International system is anarchic … but it is not lawless” - Bull

Machiavelli: In the 16th century, he argued in his book The Prince the earliest ideas of realist thinking - at this time not named. His quotes are …

“It is far better to be feared than loved” and “all men are evil and that they are always” 

“Insatiable, arrogant, crafty and shifting, and above all malignant, iniquitous, violent and savage”

Hans Morgenthau (Author of Politics Among Nations 1948): A classic realist thinker: Morgenthau believed that politics is naturally selfish and states will try to become dominant and be more powerful over others. National politics are …

believed to be more important than moral considerations as it affects a larger number of people.

“The main signpost of political action is national interest”

John Mearsheimer (Author of Tragedy of Great Power Politics 2001): An offensive realist thinker. He believes that conflict will continue and the want to dominate will continue growing in attempt to …

secure hegemony (which is the want to dominate all states in a region).

“The desire for power is always the primary motivator in international politics”

Thomas Hobbes (Conservative thinker): Put forward the view of the ‘state of nature’ in his work Leviathan (1651) as inherently selfish, motivated by greed and suspicion of others. In the absence of …

a higher authority to tame human nature, a ‘leviathan’, there would be anarchy. In IR there cannot be authority above the nation state. The conservative viewpoint links closely to the realist view of human nature leading to an anarchical world order.

Edmund Burke (Conservative thinker): An important idea of both conservatism and realism is of society operating in ‘little platoons’, seeing benefits to society from …

hierarchical structures. Burke continued the conservative and realist view of human nature as flawed and imperfect.

Liberalism emphasises human rights, individual freedom and the …

potential for cooperation between states are less likely to go to war with each other given the democratic peace theory. 

Liberalism has been the dominant ideological force shaping western political thought. Some portray liberalism as the ideology of the industrialised west and identity it with western civilisation itself. Liberal ideas and theories had a considerable impact on the discipline of IR following WWI and WWII, although …

they drew on a much older tradition of so-called ‘idealist’ theories. These date back to Kant’s belief in the possibility of ‘universal and perpetual peace’, to the middle ages and the ideas of early ‘just war’ thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas. Whilst marginalised during the early post-1945 period due to the failure of the Versailles Settlement and the ascendancy of realist thought, liberal ideas attracted growing attention from the 1970s onwards, often in the form of neoliberalism. 

Liberalism theory is in part a reaction to realism, but also a response to the developments of the latter half of the 20th that couldn’t be explained by realism such as the Decline of conflict (the number of deaths in battle had fell from 600k in 1951 to under 10k in 2006), the rise of …

 democracy and the growth in world trade (worldwide exports were worth $629m in 1960, but $30tn in 2010). The nation state became increasingly linked to many organisation and international law was seen as desirable, with many nation states agreeing to international rules.

Earlier C18th-19th thinkers that inspired the theory include Jeremy Bentham and Immanuel Kant. German Philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote an essay in 1975 titled "Perpetual peace: a philosophical sketch”, where his ideas for achieving a permanent peace involved …

 building a world where states were democratic, had no permanent standing armies, didn’t sign secret treaties and did not try to exercise any political or economic control over anyone else. Liberal IR theory uses the same ideas as liberal political ideology and applies them to the international system.

Liberal political ideology includes equality, justice, the rule of law and human rights, democracy, toleration and individualism. These principles therefore apply to states as:

• Equal. Just as citizens are equal as individuals, so are states.

• Just. The rule of law applies to citizens of a country, so it should to states in the international system.

• Tolerant. Just as toleration of differences should be applied within states, states should be tolerant of each other. 

3 key principles of Liberalism:

1. Rejection of aggressive power politics as the method of IR

2. Focus on the benefits of international cooperation

3. Power lies not just in states, but in IGOs and NGOs

Rejection of aggressive power politics: It therefore disagrees with realism' s focus on warfare, military power and the need for military security. Liberals accept the world is …

a dangerous place, but argue the consequences of using military power usually outweigh the benefits. Liberalism points to the importance of economic and cultural power.

Focus on the benefits of international cooperation: Different states often have different primary interests - but cooperation makes the world a better, wealthier and safe place for all. International cooperation should also facilitate:

economic interdependence, political harmony, cultural tolerance and mutual respect, peaceful change and disarmament. This cooperation would involve important roles for non-state actors such as the WTO, EU transnational corporations, NGOs etc. leading on to principle.

Power lies not just in states, but in IGOs and NGOs: IGOs (eg. the UN) and Non-Government actors (eg. citizens, businesses, churches, charities etc.) along with states shape the way the international system works. Cooperation which benefits …

 everyone is best achieved via international organisations and rules of international law. This challenges realism since it argues for the role of powerful non-state actors and new patterns of interaction (interdependence, integration) which weaken the importance of the state.

4 key features of liberalism as an IR theory:

1. idealism and morality

2. the democratic peace thesis

3. collective security

4. economic interdependence

Idealism and morality: Idealism stresses the need for states to pursue moral goals and to act ethically in the international arena. US president Woodrow Wilson is seen as a key liberal idealist. As the peace deal to end WWI he sought to …

 reshape Europe along his 14 points which emphasised democracy, national self-determinations ,collective security of the newly created league of nations.

The democratic peace thesis: Liberals argue that if all the world was democratic then war would end. Democracies wouldn’t fight one another because… citizens must consent but they don’t usually want to pay the cost of war and they may not find the conflict moral. Empirical finding: no two democracies have ever…

fought a war against each other (a bit of a lie - the UK and Finland between 1941-44 but only because of very specific circumstances). The current international state system is corrupted by undemocratic state leaders and out-dated policies eg. balance of power. Therefore the democratic peace theory cannot be achieved without the spread of democracy around the globe.

Collective security: Collective security is another key idea intended to ensure peace and stability. International organisations such as the UN should be …

set up to create collective security and end international aggression. Wolsey's treaty 1518 also agreed collective security - so it's not a new idea.

Economic interdependence: Liberals believe free trade and economic integration achieved by eg. Globalisation will bring countries closer together and will lead to peace and cooperation. Essentially …

Essentially full economic ‘complex integration’ means that states and peoples will have- shared economic and cultural values and will fear conflict will lead to them losing out on critical economic resources, all of which make war unlikely/impossible.

The liberal view of society is based on individualism. Liberals regard society, not as an entity in its own right, but as a collection of individuals. To the extent that society exists, it is fashioned out of voluntary and contractual agreements made by self-interested humans. However, …

whether society is understood simply as a collection of self-interested individuals or as a collection of competing groups, liberals hold that there is a general balance of interests in society that tends to promote harmony and equilibrium. This harmony is largely brought about through the state, which acts as a neutral arbiter amongst the competing interests and groups in society, guaranteeing social order.

Equilibrium and harmony also has implications for foreign policy, which may therefore be shaped by the different groups in society and the political influence they can exert. In this way …

liberals accept that foreign policy decision-making may be society-centred, by contrast with the realist model of state-centrism.

Liberal Institutionalism: Liberals have typically welcomed the emergence of global civil society, seeing this as a way of pluralising power and making intergovernmental decision-making more considered and popularly accountable. They also tend to assume that interactions among states have a significant social component, favouring the notion of ‘international society’ and believing that …

 interactions among states and non-state actors tend to be structured by principles, procedures, norms or rules, often leading to the formation of international regimes. Woodrow Wislon’s league of nations and Kant's idea of perpetual peace highlight the potential of institutions to promote peace, even if the league failed to prevent wars. Kant's vision included promoting freedom, unions and respect.

IR liberalism requires all states to be democratic and have some shared common values. These values are largely based along western models of political thinking eg. individualism, free trade etc. If many of the world states reject these ideas in full or only in part, how can ideas of international cooperation, harmony and peace be achieved?

By 2050 China will be the leading power in the world and it currently rejects liberalist thinking. The liberal model hasn’t solved key world issues such as challenges of massive income inequality due to capitalism. The desire to spread liberal values has been connected to cultural imperialism from the west, inspiring anti-western terrorism and a ‘counter-culture’.

Neoliberalism sees liberalist IR as too optimistic and idealistic. Instead, it suggests an alternative theory to understand how global politics ‘really works’ - which is a combination of liberal and realist thinking. Whilst they accept the key assumptions of realism (states as the primary actors in world politics, states pursuing their interests through the accumulation of power, international anarchy and the lack of central authority to control power), they don’t accept …

many of its beliefs such as that international institutions are irrelevant and that international anarchy prevents cooperation. Instead, they believe IGOs can work by enhancing inter-state cooperation and thereby produce mutual gains for all states and that international anarchy still allows states to cooperate and develop.

Neoliberals emphasise that states can cooperate economically and politically, reducing the risk of conflict through institutions that promote interdependence and mutual benefit. Key scholars argue that …

cooperation can lead to peace by resolving insecurities through institutional frameworks. Neoliberals don’t try to fit liberalism's ideas for positive progress into a world view that accepts the reality that the world currently operates more along the realist model. 

How does neoliberalism differ from liberalism (i)?

• Liberalism maintains a fundamentally optimistic view of human nature, believing that individuals and states are capable of moral progress, cooperation and peace through shared values and norms. 

• Neorealism, however, is cautious and pragmatic about human nature, accepting the realist assumption that states act primarily in their own self-interest, but still arguing that cooperation is possible through rational decision-making and structured institutions.
  

• Liberalism sees the international system as capable of transformation through the spread of democracy, rule of law and ethical norms, believing that peace can be achieved by aligning state behaviour with shared moral principles. 

• Neoliberalism accepts the realist  premise that the international system is anarchic, but argues that this anarchy doesn’t prevent cooperation - especially when institutions, rules and economic interdependence provide incentives for states to work together.

How does neoliberalism differ from liberalism (ii)?

• While liberalism emphasises the role of a wide range of actors, including individuals, NGOs and IGOs, neoliberalism still acknowledges these actors but maintains that states are the dominant force in international politics.

• Liberalism promotes the idea that international institutions reflect a natural convergence of shared ideals and values, whereas neoliberalism sees institutions as necessary mechanisms that help rational states cooperate by reducing uncertainty and transaction costs.

• Liberalism views cooperation as a product of shared moral goals and the spread of democratic norms, while neoliberalism sees cooperation as the outcome of rational calculations where mutual benefit outweighs conflict.

• Neoliberalism incorporates realist insights about power and anarchy, effectively blending realism’s assumptions with liberal goals, whereas liberalism traditionally distances itself from realism’s more pessimistic outlook.

• Neoliberalism, having been associated with the political and economic agenda of globalisation, having been associated with the promotion of free markets and deregulation as seen in the policies of Thatcher and Reagan. While liberalism envisions progress through moral evolution and diplomacy, neoliberalism fits liberal goals into a world that still fundamentally operates according to realist principles - prioritising strategic cooperation over idealistic harmony.

Obama’s call for peace:

President Obama’s speech emphasises the ongoing need for peace despite the inevitability of war. It reflects the …

hope for progress and desire for peace in the face of conflict. Human progress and peace remain essential even during challenging times.

Hegemonic stability theory:

This theory argues that …

a hegemon, like the US, can maintain peace by leading international institutions. This is contradicted by recent US actions eg. Iraq showed how this role can create conflict rather than stability.

Strengths of realism include that:

• Liberalist ideas e.g. free trade are extremely good for economic growth and development.

• The democratic peace thesis rejects militarism. No liberal democracies have been at war with one another.

• Since WW2, institutions like the EU and UN have been founded and have been relatively successful in preventing conflict, bringing free trade and promoting liberalism. 

• Pursues moral goals and to act ethically

• States are able to interact through IGOs such as the UN and NATO in situations of conflict, natural disaster, poverty etc.

• Economic interdependence reduces chances of conflict and bring cooperation.

• Rejects realism's simplistic view of human nature as fixed. Liberalism sees human nature as selfish, but rational, reasonable and capable of mutually advantageous cooperation. 

Other advanages of liberalism thinking are that:

• Non state actors have influence g. WHO in COVID-19

• Working together to improve welfare and quality of life in each state.

Weaknesses of liberalism include that:

• Liberalism is idealistic as it is difficult to avoid conflict 

• Liberalism is more difficult if surrounding states are not liberals (democratic and with some shared interests) → therefore relying upon interventionism 

• The role of non-state organisations are overemphasized in liberalism ideology 

• Being involved in international system means you can’t just look out for yourself 

• Required all states to be democratic and share common values, however it is largely based on western models of political thinking e.g. capitalism

Other weaknesses of liberalism thinking include: 

• By 2050 china will be leading country but it rejects much of liberalist thinking

• Desire to spread liberal values has been connected to cultural imperialism which …

• … inspires anti-western terrorism e.g. iraq war and Afghanistan

• Constant liberal thinking could backfire as we might be looking for moral resolutions but the oppositions might be looking to invade directly. 

ROBERT KEOHANE (Author of After Hegemony 1984): Worked with Joseph Nye to found neoliberalism as an IR theory. He sought to accommodate liberalism with insights from neorealism. He saw realism’s focus on the accumulation of power as simplistic, and highlighted the ‘complex interdependence’ model where states and their successes are inextricably linked. States are selfish, but rational self-interest allows them to cooperate. To prove this he argued …

the declining US power as industrialised countries have tried to coordinate their policies on the global economy - therefore acting out of shared interest and values, not due to American hegemony. He however disagrees with realist assumption that the global system is as anarchic as realists contend, arguing that despite the lack of ‘formal authority’, informal elements of government exist which are “related complexes of rules and norms, identifiable in space and time”. Therefore they are able to reach shared solutions, often brokered by international law and IGOs. 

Critics argue Keohane fails to understand the fundamentals of state actions - they won't just focus on cooperation that results in mutual gains, if these gains are unequal. Instead they…

may not cooperate, feeling asymmetrical gains might count against them long term.

“Cooperation is not automatic… it requires active efforts by governments and the development of institutions.”

IMMANUEL KANT (Author of Perpetual Peace 1795): Believed in the innate transcendental wisdom of humanity, and that mankind will continue to ‘progress’. Equally, Kant promoted ethics, morality and rationality in inter-state relations and the settling of disputes. He believed two lawfully governed republics should be …

incapable of going to war against each other and therefore would guarantee peace.  He envisioned a world where states were democratic, had no permanent standing armies, did not make secret agreement and did not try to exercise economic, political or military control over any other state

WOODROW WILSON (American President - 14 points): Wilson argued for the spread of democracy, free trade and the rule of law in IR - emphasising the importance of human rights, self-determination for nations and opposition to imperialism. Initially neutral in WWI, he viewed it as a war of imperial rivalries and arms races, and only intervened to support British/French liberal democracy and free trade in the face of German attacks on shipping.At Versailles, he promoted his 14 points, advocating free trade, self-determination and collective security via the League of Nations. These ideals faltered in …

the 20s-30s - collective security required satisfaction with borders, which post-war Germany lacked, and self- determination proved difficult in multi-ethnic states eg. Yugoslavia. The U.S. Senate rejected League membership over fears of entanglement. Wilson’s vision was derided as ‘utopianism’ in the 1930s, though elements re-emerged post-Cold War in President Bush’s call for a New World Order.

“Within another generation there will be another world war if the nations of the world do not (agree) the method by which to prevent it”. - 1919

FRANCIS FUKUYAMA (Author of the end is history 1989): A prominent liberal IR thinker, rising to fame with his 1992 book ‘The end of History’ where he argued that liberal democracy and capitalism had triumphed over all other systems, fulfilling both material and moral human needs. He claimed the Cold War marked the end of history in the sense it was an ideological conflict, and was largely resolved in favour of liberal democracy. He highlights the…

spread of liberal democracy, the system of 13 states in 1940, 37 in 1960 and 62 in 1990, and that this system is becoming the norm in Europe, Latin America and parts of Asia. He however did warn that capitalism could case social fragmentation and that democratic societies, without ideological rivals, might grow complacent and turn against their own systems. 

Although Fukuyamas work was widely influential, his work was criticised as overly simplistic and triumphalist, especially in light of continued global inequalities and the rise of authoritarianism in China and Russia, for example, and the opposition of radical …

Islam. He later would clarify that the end of history didn’t imply American dominance, arguing instead that the EU would better reflect a truly post-historical world, with its emphasis on transnational law and diminished sovereignty.

"What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government."

KENICHI OHMAE (Author of The End of he Nation State): Argues nation-states have lost their ability to control market forces, maintain their currencies and exchange rates, or generate real economic activity. As such, they have already lost their role as critical participants in the global economy. With no economic role, nation-states are ‘dinosaurs waiting to die’. Instead, economies are driven by capital, corporations, consumers and communications. These factors have usurped the power nation-states once had. States’ attempts to intervene or mediate markets and control globalism are …

harmful, whilst unrestricted trade in a ‘borderless’ economic world has really brought the improvements in living standards of the last few decades. New ‘region states’ have sprung up as drivers of trade eg. Silicon Valley, Hong-King. Governments must remember that people came first, borders came after. The wellbeing of the people will necessitate the end of borders and embracing of globalisation. 

RICHARD ROSECRANCE (Author of Action and Reaction 1963): In the 80s argued that state competitions had moved the arena of trade, rather than military strength or territorial expansion. It was now trade success that gave stats power, prestige and wealth. He predicted a moved toward ‘commercial liberalism’ as they embraced the logic of trade and interdependence and moved away from military spending. Post-Cold War this view seemed supported by China and Russia’s initial engagement with capitalism - Rosecrance hoped shared economic values would lead states to renounce war. He criticised …

neorealism, arguing foreign policy is often shaped by domestic politics—rather than neorealist contention that the international and domestic realms are separate entities eg. the Napoleonic Wars stemmed from France's export of revolutionary ideals and Europe's conservative backlash to protect their regimes. Rosecrance also saw liberalism and realism as ends of a spectrum, and that real understanding of IR lay in a synthesis.

“The future study of IR will have to take account of the failure of [each]... neither is sufficient by itself... most cases exist toward the middle of a continuum.”

JOHN LOCKE (Liberalism key thinker): His work never focused on IR, but as the ‘father of liberalism’ his principles remain foundational to liberal IR theory. He argued human nature to be primarily rational and tolerant. The natural state of mankind was not “war of all against all” (Hobbes), but framed around ‘natural law’ of human rationality, despite their egotistic tendencies. States want to cooperate and obey international law and treaties because of rational self-interest. He argues …

war is less frequent than realists contend, meaning the international realm is not in a ‘state of war’, but a ‘troubled state of peace’. He upholds that state sovereignty is the extension of individual freedom to the state and that the only lawful wars are those to liberate oppressed peoples and that subdued peoples had the right to rebel ie. if a government launches an unjust war it loses its claim to legitimacy.

“For in all the states of created beings, capable of laws, where there is no law there is no freedom”

“Wherever law ends, tyranny begins” - 1690 second treatise of civil government.