Ancient Civilizations & Early Human Societies: Key Concepts and Developments

Modern humans

Homo sapiens first appeared in East Africa between 200,000 and 100,000 B.C.E.

Hunter-gatherers

People who survived by hunting animals and gathering edible plants, seeds, and other resources.

Animism

A religious belief system in which deities or spirits are associated with features of nature such as animals, mountains, or rivers.

Patriarchy

A social system in which males dominate positions of power and authority.

Migration Out of Africa

The movement of modern humans from East Africa to other parts of the world beginning roughly 100,000-60,000 years ago.

10,000 B.C.E.

By this time, humans lived on every continent except Antarctica.

Agricultural Revolution

The transition to planting crops and raising animals for food, beginning around 10,000 years ago.

Agricultural Revolution location

The Agricultural Revolution began in the Middle East.

Food surplus

Extra food produced beyond what is immediately needed.

Specialization of labor

The development of people focusing on particular occupations instead of everyone producing food.

Artisans

Skilled workers who produced items such as tools and weapons.

Merchants

People who engage in trade.

Priests

Religious specialists who conduct rituals.

Irrigation

Systems used to supply water to crops.

Wheel

A technology that improved transportation after the Agricultural Revolution.

Bronze

A metal increasingly used for tools, weapons, and art.

Iron

A stronger metal that eventually replaced stone for many tools and weapons.

Writing

The invention of writing was encouraged by the need to keep records of trade and taxes.

Social classes

Society became increasingly divided by wealth and occupation after agriculture developed.

Agriculture and women

The status of women generally declined as agricultural societies became more complex and patriarchal.

Civilization

A large society characterized by cities and a powerful state.

River valley civilizations

Early civilizations that developed near rivers because rivers provided fresh water and fertile land.

Mesopotamia

The world's first civilization, located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in present-day Iraq.

Tigris and Euphrates

The two major rivers associated with Mesopotamia.

City-state

An independent state made up of a city and its surrounding territory.

Sumer

A civilization in southern Mesopotamia known for city-states and cuneiform.

Ziggurat

A monumental religious temple built in Mesopotamia.

Cuneiform

The first written language in history, developed by the Sumerians.

Mesopotamian religion

Mesopotamians were polytheistic and believed in many gods.

Egypt

An early civilization that developed along the Nile River.

Nile River

The river that supported agriculture and civilization in ancient Egypt.

Pharaoh

The centralized ruler of ancient Egypt.

Hieroglyphics

The Egyptian writing system.

Pyramids

Monumental Egyptian structures that demonstrated the power of the pharaoh.

Egyptian women

Women in ancient Egypt could own property and were legally equal to men in court.

Indus Valley

A civilization that developed along the Indus River in South Asia.

Harappa

A major planned city of the Indus Valley civilization.

Mohenjo-Daro

A major planned Indus Valley city known for sophisticated urban infrastructure.

Indus Valley technology

The Indus Valley civilization developed indoor plumbing and carefully planned cities.

Indus Valley writing

The language of the Indus Valley civilization has not been deciphered.

Huang He

The Yellow River around which early Chinese civilization developed.

Early Chinese civilization

A centralized and highly patriarchal society that placed special importance on ancestors.

Olmec

An early complex civilization in Mesoamerica that developed outside a major river valley and participated in extensive trade.

Chavin

An early complex civilization in the Andes that participated in extensive trade.

Polytheism

Belief in many gods.

Monotheism

Belief in one supreme deity.

Hinduism

A major South Asian religious tradition whose origins go back at least 3,500 years.

Aryans

People who migrated south from north of the Himalayas and brought the Vedas and religious beliefs that influenced Hinduism.

Vedas

Sacred scriptures brought by the Aryans that became important to Hindu traditions.

Reincarnation

The Hindu belief that the soul is reborn repeatedly.

Caste system

A system dividing society into sharply defined social classes with limited social mobility.

Social mobility

The ability to move between social classes; the caste system restricted it.

Zoroastrianism

A Persian belief system focused on human free will and the eternal struggle between good and evil.

Judaism

An influential monotheistic religion that developed among the Hebrews/Israelites.

Hebrews/Israelites

The early people associated with the development of Judaism.

Abraham

A major figure in Jewish tradition who lived about 4,000 years ago.

Yahweh

The God worshipped by Jews.

Covenant

A mutual promise between the Jewish people and Yahweh.

Hebrew Scriptures

The sacred Jewish scriptures, sometimes called the Old Testament.

Classical Era

The period from about 600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E. characterized by major empires, trade, and intellectual developments.

Classical empires

Persian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Mauryan, Gupta, Qin, Han, and Mayan civilizations were major classical powers.

Silk Roads

Land-based Eurasian trade routes connecting East Asia with Central and Western Asia and the Mediterranean.

Indian Ocean trade

Maritime trade connecting East Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia.

Mediterranean trade

Trade across the Mediterranean that connected civilizations such as the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, and North Africans.

Buddhism

A religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama that teaches a path to overcome suffering and reach enlightenment.

Siddhartha Gautama

The founder of Buddhism, born into a wealthy Hindu family around 530 B.C.E.

Buddha

Meaning "enlightened one"; the title Siddhartha Gautama adopted after reaching enlightenment.

Four Noble Truths

Buddhist teachings explaining the nature of suffering and how to overcome it.

Eightfold Path

The Buddhist path of meditation, reflection, and avoiding excessive earthly pleasures.

Nirvana

The peaceful state of enlightenment that ends the cycle of reincarnation.

Buddhism and caste

Buddhism rejected the caste system, making it attractive to lower-caste people.

Universalizing religion

A religion that actively seeks converts among people from different cultures and regions.

Monasticism

A religious lifestyle centered on communities of monks or nuns.

Buddhist spread

Buddhism spread through missionaries and merchants along the Silk Roads and Indian Ocean.

Mauryan Empire

The first major period of political unity in South Asia, lasting from 322-187 B.C.E.

Ashoka

The most influential Mauryan ruler who converted to Buddhism and promoted the religion.

Ashoka's edicts

Laws and policies Ashoka had inscribed on pillars throughout his empire.

Gupta Empire

The second major period of political unity in South Asia, lasting approximately 320-550 C.E.

Gupta Golden Age

A period of major intellectual and cultural achievements in India.

Gupta mathematics

The Gupta period developed the 0-9 numbering system and place value.

Gupta medicine

Physicians made advances including inoculations to prevent disease.

Zhou Dynasty

A Chinese dynasty lasting approximately 1076-256 B.C.E. that introduced the Mandate of Heaven.

Warring States period

A period of instability and political decentralization in China after Zhou power weakened.

Mandate of Heaven

The belief that Heaven gives an emperor the right to rule but can remove that right if the ruler becomes corrupt or ineffective.

Confucius

A Chinese philosopher born around 551 B.C.E. whose teachings emphasized social order, education, virtue, and respect for authority.

Analects

A collection of Confucius's teachings written down by his followers.

Filial piety

The duty to honor and respect one's parents and ancestors.

Confucianism

A philosophy emphasizing education, social harmony, virtue, hierarchy, and respect for authority.

Daoism

A philosophy emphasizing harmony with nature and internal reflection.

Qin Dynasty

The Chinese dynasty that unified China in 221 B.C.E. and established centralized control.

Qin Shi Huangdi

The ruler who unified China under the Qin Dynasty.

Qin accomplishments

The Qin standardized writing, weights, and measures and built roads and canals.

Han Dynasty

The Chinese dynasty from 206 B.C.E.-220 C.E. that became a Golden Age of Chinese history.

Han achievements

The Han expanded China, increased trade, developed technology, and created a civil service examination system.

Han technology

The Han developed paper, the magnetic compass, and the sternpost rudder.

Civil service exam

A Han system that tested candidates on Confucian teachings for government positions.

Meritocracy

A system in which people gain positions based on ability or achievement.

Persian Empire

A large centralized empire established under Cyrus the Great around 559 B.C.E.

Cyrus the Great

The founder of the Persian Empire.

Achaemenid Empire

Another name for the Persian Empire.