Bio 2 Final Exam

FAP

Innate behavior pattern that is stereotyped, spontaneous, independent of immediate control, genetically encoded, and independent of individual learning.

How is a FAP elicited?

A FAP is elicited by a sign stimulus which is the environmental trigger that causes a fixed action pattern or unchanging behavioral response.

Learning Vs. FAP

An FAP is a response to an environmental trigger. Learning is being taught to be able to complete something when told to.

Imprinting behavior

Imprinting is a form of learning that occurs when a young animal forms an association with the first moving object it sees. Imprinting in the wild has survival value that can lead to increased reproductive success. This behavior enables an individual to recognize its own species and thus eventually to find an appropriate mate.

When does imprinting develop?

Within the first few days of birth, also known as the “sensitive period”

Social interactions

An experiment was conducted on white-crowned sparrows. Those who were given a tutor, learned the song better. This proves that when learning from someone in a social environment, it improves the likelihood of that person remembering the information.

classical conditioning

modifying behavior by pairing two different types of stimuli (at the same time), causing an animal to form an association between them

operant conditioning

modifying behavior in which a stimulus-response connection is strengthened

orientation

in birds, the ability to know present location by tracking stimuli in the environment

navigation

to steer or manage a course by adjusting one’s bearings and following the result of the adjustment

what are the types of animal communications?

chemical, auditory, visual, and tactile

chemical communication

chemical signal (pheromone) being passed among members of the same species in low concentration. Chemical signals are effective during day and night, but are not as fast as other communication styles

auditory communication

communication through sound. it is faster than chemical communication and is effective in day and night. can be modified by loudness, pattern, duration, and repetition

visual communication

form of communication between animals using their bodies, including various forms of display. visual signals are most often used during the day

tactile communication

communication through touch, for example, when a chick pecks its female parent for food, chimpanzees groom each other and honeybees “dance”

Territoriality

marking and/or defending a particular area against invasion by another species member. The area is often used for the purpose of feeding, mating, and caring for young

Advantage & Disadvantage of territoriality

Advant: scares away predators who wish to attack

Disadvant: very tiring and dangerous

what aspects of bio does ecology encompass?

they study how individual organism’s adapted to and survive its environment

Ecological levels of organization

organism, population, species, community, ecosystem

organism

do not exist singly, but are part of a population, the functional unit that interacts with the environment and on which natural selection operates

population

group of organism of the same species occupying a certain area and sharing a common gene pool

species

group of similarly constructed organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring: organisms that share a common gene pool

community

assemblage of species interacting with one another within the same environment

ecosystem

biological community together with the associated abiotic environment, characterized by a flow of energy and a cycling of inorganic nutrients

3 parameters of population demographic

1. density

2. distribution

3. rate of growth

Resources

are living and nonliving components of an environment that are used to support living organisms. Like, levels of light, water, space, enough mates, and food

Limiting factors

environmental aspects that determine where an organism lives and how large their population can become

Patterns of distribution

clumped, random, and uniform

Survivorship

The probability of newborn individuals of a cohort surviving to particular ages

Type 1: characteristic of a population in which most individuals survive well past the midpoint

Type 2: typical of a population in which most individuals die very young

Type 3: survivorship decreases at a constant rate throughout the life span

High prereproductive group

Birthrate is higher than the death rate, which results in a pyramid-shaped diagram. THe population continues to grow- more individuals entering than dying.

High reproductive group

as the size of the reproductive group equals the size of the prereproductive group, a bell-shaped diagram results. The population is stable and not increasing or decreasing

High postreproductive group

When birthrate falls below the death rate, the prereproductive group becomes smaller than the reproductive group. The age structure becomes urn-shaped

Biotic potential

maximum population growth rate under ideal conditions

limiting factors of biotic potential

1. number of offspring per reproductive event

2. amount of competition

3. age distribution

4. presence of disease/predators

rate of natural increase (R)

growth rate is determined by calculating the number of individuals that are born each year and subtracting the number of individuals that die each year.

R= (b-d) / N (birth-death) divided by total population

Exponential growth

growth of a population in which there is a rapid increase over a short period of time due to an increase in the number of reproductive females in the population. This produces a J-shaped growth curve

logistic growth

population increase that results in an S-shaped curve; growth is slow at first, steepens, and then levels off due to environmental resistance

Four phases of logistic growth

1. Lag phase

2. Exponential growth

3. Deceleration

4. Stable equilibrium

Lag phase

growth is slow because the population is small

exponential growth phase

growth is accelerating

deceleration phase

growth slows down

stable equilibrium phase

little (if any) growth, because births and deaths are about equal

carrying capacity (K)

the largest number of organisms of a particular species that can be maintained indefinitely by a given environment

Density-Independent

abiotic factor, such as fire/flood, that affects population size independent of the population’s density. Intensity does NOT increase with population size

Density-Dependent

biotic factor, such as disease or competition, that affects population size in a direct relationship to the population’s density. Intensity DOES increase with population size

2 types of life history patterns

r-Selected populations

K-Selected populations

r-Selection

favorable life history strategy under certain environmental conditions; characterized by a high reproductive rate with little or no attention given to offspring survival

K-Selection

favorable life history strategy under stable environmental conditions characterized by the production of a few offspring with much attention given to offspring survival

Environmental impact on population

population size x resource consumption per capita = pollution per unit of resource used

Lower-developed countries are increasing. More-developed countries are using too much of earth’s resources

renewable resources

resources normally replaced or replenished by natural processes and not depleted by moderate use

nonrenewable resources

minerals, fossil fuels, and other materials present in essentially fixed amounts (within the human timescale) in our environment

Renewable energy recourses

solar panels, windmills, hydrogen cars, polyculture, contour farming, biological pest control, rural communities instead of cities, drip irrigation, drought & salt tolerant plants

community structure

species richness, species abundance, species diversity

species richness

number of species in a community

species abundance

number of individuals of each species

species diversity

variety of species that make up a community

island biogeography model

species diversity on an island is influenced by the distance of the island from the mainland (closer islands have more diversity) and the total area of the island (bigger islands have more diversity).

Ecological niche

the role a species plays in its community. the niche includes the methods that species use to acquire the resources it needs to meet energy, nutrient, and survival demands

fundamental niche

comprises the range of abiotic conditions under which a species can survive when adverse biotic conditions are absent. Larger than the realized niche

realized niche

comprises those conditions under which a species actually survives when adverse biotic interactions (competition and predation) are present

competitive exclusion principle

theory that two species cannot occupy the same niche in the same place and at the same time

resource partitioning

The mechanism that increases the number of niches by dividing the resources, such as food/living space, among species

Types of symbiotic relationship

parasitism, commensalism, mutualism

parasitism

one species (the parasite) benefits in terms of growth and reproduction to the detriment of the other species (the host).

Ex: Viruses, bacteria, fungi, tapeworms, fleas, etc.

commensalism

one species is benefited and the other is neither harmed not benefited.

Ex: barnacles attached to whales, ferns growing on trees, etc.

mutualism

both species benefit in terms of growth and reproduction.

Ex: some bacteria inside of humans, plants and fungus, sea anemones and crabs

primary succession

formation of soil from exposed rock due to wind, water, and other abiotic factors

secondary succession

disturbance-based succession in which there is a progressive change from grasses to shrubs to a mixture of shrubs and trees. this type of succession occurs in areas where soil is already present

how autotrophs get their nutrients

require only inorganic nutrients and an outside energy source to produce organic nutrients for their own use

how heterotrophs get their nutrients

organisms that need preformed organic nutrients that they can use as an energy source

how photoautotrophs get their nutrients

possess photosynthetic pigments and carry on photosynthesis in freshwater and marine habitats

energy flow within an ecosystem

begins when producers absorb solar energy, producers capture solar energy via photosynthesis, energy then flows one-way through the ecosystem: producers, consumers, decomposers. energy is not recycled, and eventually is lost as heat

biogeochemical cycles

circulating pathway of elements such as carbon and nitrogen, involving exchange pools, storage areas, and biotic communities. Water cycle, carbon cycle, phosphorus cycle, nitrogen cycle

Tundra

characterized as being cold and dark much of the year. Long, cold, harsh winters and short summers. Little rainfall so the tundra could be considered a desert, but melting snow creates little pools. Only the top layer of soil thaws- permafrost is the layer that remains permanently frozen. Soil is nutrient-poor, no trees, few animals throughout the winter but many animals in the summer

Taiga

long, cold, snowy winters and warm/humid summers. Cone-bearing trees can be found in the taiga (northern part of North America and Eurasia, along the Pacific coast, and northern cali). plentiful rainfall and rich soil which makes for extremely tall trees

temperate deciduous forests

moderate climate with relatively high rainfall. Trees (oak, beech, sycamore) loose their leaves in the fall and regrow them in the spring. Found south of the taiga. Ground animals and insects are plentiful and rich soil

tropical rain forests

warm climate with plentiful rainfall and 12 hours of sunlight every day. Richest land biomes, with 50% of earth’s biodiversity found here. Regions near the equator (South American, Africa, and Indo-Malayan) house this biome. Levels include: forest floor, understory, and canopy. vegetation is sparse.

shrublands

dry summer and receive most rainfall in the winter. Small, short shrubs instead of all trees. Chaparral is a type of shrubland that is highly flammable. The seeds of many species require the heat and scarring action of fire to induce germination.

temperate grasslands

winters that are bitterly cold and summer that are hot and dry. tall and short grass prairies. bison roam here. small animals live below ground. all these grassland have been converted into agricultural lands because of the fertile soil

savannas

relatively cool dry season followed by hot rainy season. large expanses of grasses with few trees. plants with deep root systems to survive drought and fires. thoryn flat-topped Acacia trees can survive the weather here and sheds its leaves during a drought. variety of herbivores found here (elephants, giraffes, etc).

deserts

long, hot days with cold nights. lack of moisture (no rain). contain plants adapted to survive long drought, and extreme heat/cold. mostly reptiles and insects found here

lakes

bodies of fresh water. Can be oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) or eutrophic (nutrient-rich). Eutrophication: process in which a body of water receives a large input of nutrients in a short period of time

lake overturn

during the fall/spring, in prep for summer/winter, the water is overturned. the deep waters receive oxygen from surface waters and the surface waters receive inorganic nutrients from the deep waters

lake/pond life zones

littoral zone: closest to shore

limnetic zone: forms the sunlit body of the lake

profundal zone: below the level of light penetration

benthic zone: includes the sediment at the soil-water interface

wetlands

hold some amount of water during part of the year. classifies by their vegetation

types of wetlands

marshes, swamps, bogs

marshes

soft wetland that is treeless and continuously covered in water that often contains rushes, reeds, or grasses

swamps

wet, spongy land that is saturated and sometimes partially or intermittently covered with water. they are dominated by woody plants or shrubs (trees include: cypress, red maple, and tupelo). Home of the american alligator

bogs

wet, spongy ground in a low-lying area, usually acidic or low in organic nutrients. they often contain peat deposits and sphagnum moss.

estuary

portions of the ocean located where a river enters and fresh water mixes with salt water. this biome is considered the nursery of the marine ecosystem. organisms must be able to withstand mixing of water and rapid changes in salinity. Abundance of nutrients found here.

Ex: mudflats, mangrove swamps, and rocky shores

conservation biology

studies biodiversity with the goal of conserving natural resources for this generation and all future generations. conservation biology was developed in response to the extinction crisis.

3 levels of biodiversity

genetic, community, and landscape

genetic diversity

genetic variation that exists among member of a population. populations with high diversity are more likely to have members that survive changes in the ecosystem

community diversity

variety of species in a particular locale, dependent on the species interactions. diverse community compositions increase the levels of biodiversity in the biosphere.

landscape diversity

variety of habitat elements within an ecosystem (ex: plains, mountains, and rivers). fragmentation of the landscape reduces reproductive capacity and food availability and can disrupt seasonal behaviors

3 direct values of biodiversity

medicinal: there are certain organisms that are used in medicinal practices. penicillin comes from fungus which is used to help treat bacterial infections. Leeches help mend the skin and prevent blood clots.

Agricultural: most crops were derived from wild plants that were modified to increase crop yield. animals are used to help pollinate flowering plants.

consumptive use: we are taking the goods (organisms) and supplying other places/people with these things

indirect values

biogeochemical cycles, waste recycling, provision of fresh water, prevention of soil erosion, ecotourism

biogeochemical cycles

allows for fresh water, removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, uptake of excess soil nitrogen, and provision of phosphate. However, humans are upsetting the natural cycle and that causes negative consequences. today’s technology is limited in its ability to replicate the cycles.

waste recycling

many organism aid in the break down of dead organic matter and other wastes. Humans are adding too much waste into the world for decomposers to keep up. sewage treatment plants are too expensive to help

provision of fresh water

humans use water for drinking and irrigation. freshwater is used as a source of food, since it houses fish. if we continue to waste our water and pollute our water, we will have nothing left.