psychology terms from slides

up until lecture 9

Structuralism

using introspection to reveal the structure of the mind

Functionalism

How mental and behavioral processes function to enable adaptation, survival and flourishing

Behaviorism

studying behavior without reference to mental process

what did kurt lewin emphasize

emphasized the interaction of the person and the situation

1990’s declared what

the decade of the brain—jumpstarting the field of cognitive neuroscience

Basic science approach

approach in scientific studies. Study of perception, thought, behavior

Clinical approach

approach in medical settings. Psychotherapy, psychiatry, clinical practice

what two approaches are closely merged now

clinical and scientific

Understanding broad patterns of behavior

Evolutionary perspective, Cultural perspective

Understanding thoughts and feelings

Cognitive perspective, Emotional perspective

Understanding roles of body and brain

Biological–neuroscience perspective

Understanding stable and changing patterns of behavior

Developmental perspective, Personality perspective, Social perspective, Clinical perspective

WEIRD samples

Western

Educated

Industrialized

Rich

Democratic

Conscious processes

Mental processes that we have access to and can be observed (with valid measurements)

Unconscious processes

Mental processes that we do not have access to and cannot influence (Some things we have access to but are unaware of their influence)

Neuroscience

scientific study of how nerves and cells send and receive information from the brain, body, and spinal cord

Biology influences psychological experience example

Synesthesia

Psychological experience influences biology example

London cab drivers study

Summative Thinking

Multiple sources of evidence are considered, and conclusions are not absolute.

Overconfidence

tendency to be overly sure of what we know

Confirmation bias

the tendency to seek out, pay attention to, and believe only evidence that supports what we are already confident we know.

Snyder & Swann

study on confirmation bias.

Participants were then asked to test one of

two “hypotheses”:

1. Whether the person was an introvert, or

2. Whether the person was an extravert.

chose to ask questions that would confirm, making them more likely to confirm the hypotheses

Popular (pop) psychology

Claims about psychological phenomena that are promoted through social media, magazines, TV shows, and other entertainment media and that are often accepted as truth by the public but may lack validity.

Homeopathy

Forgoing evidence-based medical treatments for homeopathic remedies can place people at great risk

pseudoscience

critical thinking

The purposeful, reasoned, and goal-directed process of exploring a situation or problem; it is an essential component of psychological literacy.

Cognitive Perspective

The psychological perspective that studies the mental processes that underlie perception, thought, learning, memory, language, and creativity

example of cognitive perspective

dilated pupils

Emotional Perspective

A psychological perspective that seeks to identify how our capacity to feel, express, and perceive emotions influences decision making, behavior, and social relationships

example of emotional perspective

Consistently viewing others’ highlighted life moments on social media takes an emotional toll on us

Biological-Neuroscience Perspective

The psychological perspective that seeks to understand the biological underpinnings of how humans think, act, and behave.

Neuroscience

scientific study of how nerves and cells send and receive information from the brain, body, and spinal cord

Developmental Perspective

Studies how people change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally as they age

Personality perspective

this perspective would ask: “Do some people possess traits that make them more socially skilled?”

Social psychological perspective

this perspective would ask: “Are people more socially skilled in some situations than in other situations?”

Clinical Perspective

The psychological perspective that focuses on the causes and treatment of psychological disorders, with the goal of improving human well-being, daily functioning, and social relationships

Sigmund Freud’s early influence on what

clinical perspective

Positive Psychology

The scientific study of the factors that make people happy, keep them healthy, and help them manage stress; includes the study of important human experiences, such as hope, courage, and creativity

Positive psychology promotes three components of happiness

o Positive emotions and pleasure

o Engagement with life

o Living a meaningful life with good

relationships and a history of

accomplishment

empiricists

base beliefs on systematic, objective observation of the world.

Scientific method

The process of basing one’s confidence in an idea on systematic, direct observations of the world, usually by setting up research studies to test ideas

Theory-data-cycle

The process of the scientific method, in which scientists collect data that can either confirm or disconfirm a theory.

Theory

A set of propositions explaining how and why people act, think, or feel.

Hypothesis

A specific prediction stating what will happen in a study if the theory is correct

Data

A set of empirical observations that scientists have gathered

Replication

When a study is conducted more than once on a new sample of participants, and obtains the same basic results.

Journal

A periodical containing peer-reviewed articles on a specific academic discipline, written for a scholarly audience

Variable

Something of interest that varies from person to person, or situation to situation

Measured variable

A variable whose values are simply recorded. included in every experiment

Manipulated variable

A variable whose values the researcher controls, usually by assigning different participants to different levels of that variable.

Operational

The specific way of measuring or manipulating an abstract variable in a particular study.

Self-reporting:

People describe themselves in an interview or survey, using a rating scale

Direct observation:

researchers observe and record the occurrence of behavior

Descriptive research

A type of study in which researchers measure one variable at a time

Sample

The group who participated in research, and who belong to the larger group (the population of interest) that the researcher is interested in understanding

Population of interest

The full set of cases the researcher is interested in.

Random sampling:

A way choosing a sample of participants for a study in which participants are selected without bias, for example, by dialing random digits on the telephone or pulling names out of a hat

Observational research:

A descriptive research method in which psychologists measure their variable of interest by observing and recording what people are doing

Naturalistic observation

An observational research method in which psychologists observe the behavior of animals and people in their normal, everyday worlds and environments

Case study

An observational research method in which researchers study one or two individuals in depth, often those who have a unique condition.

These findings do not generalize to a larger population but may offer theoretical insights and research inspirations.

Correlational research

A type of study that measures two (or more) variables in the same sample of people, and then observes the relationship between them

Scatterplot

A figure used to represent a correlation.

positive correlation

high values of one variable are linked with high values of the other variable

negative correlation

high values of one variable are linked with low values of the other variable

Third-variable problem

For a given observed relationship between two variables, an additional variable that is associated with both of them, making the additional variable an alternative explanation for the observed relationship

independent variable:

The manipulated variable in an experiment.

Dependent variable

The measured variable in an experiment.

Random assignment:

A procedure used in experimental research in which a random method is used to decide which participants will receive each level of the independent variable

Experimental (or treatment) group:

In an experiment, a group or condition in which some proposed cause is present.

Control (or comparison) group:

In an experiment, a group or condition in which some proposed cause is not present

Placebo condition:

In an experiment, a group or condition in which people expect to receive a treatment but are exposed to only an inert version, such as a sugar pill.

Validity:

The appropriateness or accuracy of a conclusion or decision

Construct validity: .

The specific assessment of how accurately the operationalizations used in the study capture the variables of interest

always improtant

Reliability:

The degree to which a measure yields consistent results each time it is administered

External validity:

The degree to which it is reasonable to generalize from a study’s sample to its population of interest

specially important in descriptive research.

Internal validity

the ability of a study to rule out alternative explanations for a relationship between two variables; one of the criteria for supporting a causal claim

matters most in experiments, when the goal is to establish cause and effect.

Confound

-An alternative explanation for a relationship between two variables; specifically, in an experiment, when two experimental groups accidentally differ on more than just the independent variable, which causes a problem for internal validity

-Something that makes it unclear whether the independent variable alone caused the results of an experiment

open science

Institutional Review Board, IRB:

A local panel of researchers, teachers, citizens, and others who determine whether a research study lives up to the community’s ethical standards

three core ethical standards that guide the decisions on IRB’s:

autonomy, beneficence, and justice

autonomy:

Each research participant has the right, without intimidation or coercion, to decide about participating

Informed consent:

An application of the ethical principle of autonomy, in which a researcher explains the procedures of a study, including its risks and potential benefits, to the potential participants, who then decide whether to take part

beneficence:

The benefits of the study must outweigh the risks of harm

justice:

Participants bearing the burden of research must be representative of the population who will benefit from the research

Neurons

The cellular building blocks of the brain

Neuroscience

The study of how nerves and cells send and receive information from the brain, body, and spinal cord

Bottom-up:

receives information from senses

Top-down:

influences lower order regions

Cerebral cortex:

The outermost layer of the brain, which supports:

• Cognitive skills

• Complex emotions and complex mental activity

Spinal cord:

-The major bundle of nerves, encased in your spine, that connects your body and your brain.

-Transmits signals from the brain to the body and vis versus

Motor neurons

send signals to make the body take action

Sensory neurons

carry information from the outside world and within the body to the brain.

Interneurons

interpret, store, and retrieve information about the world, allowing you to make informed decisions before you act

Central Nervous System (CNS):

The system composed of the brain and spinal cord; information from your body travels to the brain by way of the nerves of your spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

The system composed of the nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord; connects the parts of the body to the brain

Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS):

A division of the autonomic nervous system that acts on blood vessels, organs, and glands in ways that prepare the body for action, especially in life-threatening situations

fight or flight

Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS):

A division of the autonomic nervous system that returns the body to a resting state by counteracting the actions of the sympathetic system

Allows the body to regenerate energy when it

is safe to do so

Hormones:

The chemicals carried by the blood that travel through the circulatory system enabling the brain to regulate the body’s activities

Endocrine system: the nervous system

A network of glands that produces and releases hormones into the bloodstream to regulate the body’s activities. Works with the CNS to synchronize the brain and the body Slower rate of transmission than the nervous system

Adrenal glands:

The endocrine glands located on top of the kidneys; they produce a variety of hormones, including adrenaline and cortisol, that are central to the stress response