legacy of mesoamerica exam 2- the zapatista rebellion

Lake Nicaragua

The Tren Maya

The “Disappeared”

Mass graves from the Guatemalan Civil War

Forensic anthropology

Microloan agencies and microfinance

“Social housing” (fraccionamientos)

Predatory lending

Women and “waiting out”

The end of the Cold War and the effect on globalization

THE END OF THE COLD WAR

The fall of the Berlin Wall in Nov. 1989 and the collapse of the USSR resulted in a proliferation of civil wars throughout the world

Many ethnic groups that were part of existing states began to demand separation and/or increased autonomy

Unprecedented movement of people and goods through globalization

Unprecedented flow of information and communication due to the internet

The 1992 Amendment

THE 1992 AMENDMENT

In 1992, the Mexican Congress passed an amendment to the Constitution that allowed for the privatization of communal Ejidos

 Allowed individual families to sell their parcels to private owners

 Also permitted the rental of ejido lands to private owners

 This made it very easy to strip Indigenous communities of their land

 The measure was passed as part of the pre-conditions for the US congress’ approval of NAFTA

The privatization of ejido lands

the 1992 amendment

In 1992, the Mexican Congress passed an amendment to the Constitution that allowed for the privatization of communal Ejidos

 Allowed individual families to sell their parcels to private owners

 Also permitted the rental of ejido lands to private owners

 This made it very easy to strip Indigenous communities of their land

 The measure was passed as part of the pre-conditions for the US congress’ approval of NAFTA

NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement)

1992 amendment passed as part of the pre-conditions for the US congress’ approval of NAFTA

Effects of the pre-NAFTA agreement in Mexico

As part of the pre-NAFTA agreements, Mexico eliminated many state-sponsored subsidies and market price controls, including those for agricultural commodities

This made prices fluctuate wildly for many staple commodities such as corn

Many local growers could no longer afford to grow staple crops

Led to widespread rural poverty and created massive out-migration from rural communities, including migration to the US

In addition, global competition from Asia and Africa for commodities such as coffee and chocolate eliminated seasonal plantation jobs

•  In Chiapas, refugees from the Guatemalan and Salvadoran civil war would often work for lower wages, creating competition for plantation jobs in Mexico

The Lacandon Jungle as a refuge

Zapatista movement originated in the Lacandon Jungle

Historically, only marginally controlled by the Spanish/Mexican authorities, and served as a refuge for many Indigenous groups

•  The Spanish attempted many “entradas” and tried to consolidate towns, mostly unsuccessful

During the late 20th century, many thousands of Tzotzil and Tzeltal migrants, as well as Guatemalan refugees fled there and established settlements

•  Due to poverty, lack of access to land, or as religious refugees (usually Protestants who were exiled from their communities for converting)

The origins of the Zapatista movement

The full name of the group is: Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (EZLN) (Zapatista Army of National Liberation)

The group takes its name from Emiliano Zapata, commander of the Liberation Army of the South during the Mexican Revolution Sees itself as continuing the liberation struggle that he begun

Demanded "work, land, housing, food, health care, education, independence, freedom, democracy, justice and peace" in their communities

The EZLN (Zapatista Army of National Liberation)

The full name of the group is: Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (EZLN) (Zapatista Army of National Liberation)

The group takes its name from Emiliano Zapata, commander of the Liberation Army of the South during the Mexican Revolution

Subcomandante Marcos

In 1969s, a guerilla group called the National Liberation Forces (FLN) was founded in northern Mexico, and established local groups across Mexico

In 1983, a local group of the FLN was founded in the Lacandon Jungle of Chiapas

•  Initially functioned as a self-defense unit dedicated to protecting Maya communities evictions and encroachment on their land.

Subcomandante Marcos (also known as Subcomandante Galean) was an upper-class student from Tamaulipas (northern Mexico)

• While attending UNAM in Mexico City, he became involved in FLN

•  In 1984, Marcos moved to Chiapas and emerged as the military leader and spokesperson for the Zapatistas

•  Known for wearing a black ski mask and smoking a tobacco pipe

The FLN (National Liberation Forces)

In 1969s, a guerilla group called the National Liberation Forces (FLN) was founded in northern Mexico, and established local groups across Mexico

In 1983, a local group of the FLN was founded in the Lacandon Jungle of Chiapas

•  Initially functioned as a self-defense unit dedicated to protecting Maya communities evictions and encroachment on their land

January 1, 1994

On January 1, 1994, the Zapatista Army released the “First Declaration and Revolutionary Laws”

•  Timed to coincide with the day that NAFTA came into effect

•  Effectively, the document was a declaration of war

•  The initial coal was to instigate a revolution against the rise of neo- liberalism

• Opposition to NAFTA and the privatization of ejido lands

•  Calls for greater democratization of the Mexican government, opposition to the PRI

•  Demanded an end to violence and police harassment of Indigenous communities

The First Declaration and Revolutionary Laws

On January 1, 1994, the Zapatista Army released the “First Declaration and Revolutionary Laws”

•  Timed to coincide with the day that NAFTA came into effect

•  Effectively, the document was a declaration of war

•  The initial coal was to instigate a revolution against the rise of neo- liberalism

• Opposition to NAFTA and the privatization of ejido lands

•  Calls for greater democratization of the Mexican government, opposition to the PRI

•  Demanded an end to violence and police harassment of Indigenous communities

The Women’s Revolutionary Law

On the day of the uprising, the EZLN also announced the Women's Revolutionary Law

Consisted of 10 demands, including:

First, women have the right to participate in the revolutionary struggle in the place and at the level that their capacity and will dictates without any discrimination based on race, creed, color, or political affiliation.

Second, women have the right to work and to receive a just salary.

Third, women have the right to decide on the number of children they have and take care of.

Fourth, women have the right to participate in community affairs and hold leadership positions if they are freely and democratically elected.

Fifth, women have the right to primary care in terms of their health and nutrition.

Sixth, women have the right to education.

Seventh, women have the right to choose who they are with (i.e. choose their romantic/sexual partners) and should not be obligated to marry by force.

Eighth, no woman should be beaten or physically mistreated by either family members or strangers. Rape and attempted rape should be severely punished.

Ninth, women can hold leadership positions in the organization and hold military rank in the revolutionary armed forces.

Ten, women have all the rights and obligations set out by the revolutionary laws and regulations

The Armed Insurgency in highland Chiapas

On the morning of January 1, 1994, an estimated 3,000 armed Zapatistas seized towns and cities in central and northeast Chiapas

Took over the Palacio Municipal in San Cristobal de las Casas

•  Gave speeches in front of the palacio

•  Freed prisoners out of the municipal jail

• Set fire to several police buildings and military barracks

The Mexican army counter-attacked the next day, causing the EZLN forces to retreat from several cities, particularly SCLC and Ocosingo

•  Intense fighting between the EZLN and the military on the army base of Rancho Nuevo, just east of SCLC

•  Many EZLN forces retreated into the Lacandon Jungle and other refuge areas

Media support for the Zapatistas

The Zapatistas waged an unprecedentedly successful publicity campaign for international support

•  Sympathetic coverage by many international news organizations, including the New York Times

•  Meetings and recorded interviews by Subcomandante Marcos with high- profile public figures

• Use of the internet to spread the message

• Significant support from academics and students, especially internationally

•  International NGOs supportive of Indigenous communities served as observers and reporters

•  International scrutiny almost certainly prevented the Mexican government from retaliating as overtly as it wanted to

Early local outcomes of the Zapatista Rebellion

Following the initial armed conflict, the Zapatistas seized over a million acres from large landowners

•  By 1995, the Mexican Army had re-claimed a significant portion of the territory

Support for the Zapatistas was mixed in many of the early towns that they occupied, including Ocosingo, Las Margaritas, Huixtán, Oxchuc, Rancho Nuevo, Altamirano, and Chanal

•  In many cases, this created significant local conflicts, with family members and neighbors fighting each other

• In many Highland Chiapas towns, including Zinacantan and Chamula, support for the Zapatistas was minimal

Support for the Zapatistas

Support for the Zapatistas was mixed in many of the early towns that they occupied, including Ocosingo, Las Margaritas, Huixtán, Oxchuc, Rancho Nuevo, Altamirano, and Chanal

•  In many cases, this created significant local conflicts, with family members and neighbors fighting each other

• In many Highland Chiapas towns, including Zinacantan and Chamula, support for the Zapatistas was minimal

The Mexican Army response

Because of international scrutiny, the Mexican government decided to pursue a more covert counter- insurgency strategy

• Enlargement of military bases in Rancho Nuevo and Comitan

•  Trained and paid paramilitary groups to attack EZLN forces and supporting communities

•  Many of the paramilitary groups are also from Maya communities

The Acteal Massacre—Dec. 23, 1997

•  Many Tzotzil supporters were concentrated in communities north of SCLC

•  Government-backed paramilitary forced murdered 45 members of a pacifist group called Las Abejas, almost all women and children, who were attending a religious prayer meeting

•  The Mexican government finally admitted responsibility in Sept. 2020

The Acteal Massacre

The Acteal Massacre—Dec. 23, 1997

•  Many Tzotzil supporters were concentrated in communities north of SCLC

•  Government-backed paramilitary forced murdered 45 members of a pacifist group called Las Abejas, almost all women and children, who were attending a religious prayer meeting

•  The Mexican government finally admitted responsibility in Sept. 2020

In the Mexican army response 

Las Abejas

The Acteal Massacre—Dec. 23, 1997

•  Many Tzotzil supporters were concentrated in communities north of SCLC

•  Government-backed paramilitary forced murdered 45 members of a pacifist group called Las Abejas, almost all women and children, who were attending a religious prayer meeting

•  The Mexican government finally admitted responsibility in Sept. 2020

In the Mexican army response 

The San Andrés Accords

In 1995, the EZLN began negotiations with the Mexican government to end the armed conflict

The accords were signed on February 16, 1996, in San Andrés Larráinzar, Chiapas

The accords were based on five principles:

1. Basic respect for the diversity of the Indigenous population of Chiapas;

2. The conservation of the natural resources within the territories used and occupied by Indigenous peoples;

3. A greater participation of Indigenous communities in the decisions and control of public expenditures;

4. The participation of Indigenous communities in determining their own development plans;

5. The autonomy of Indigenous communities and their right of free determination in the framework of the State

The Accords were approved by Indigenous communities throughout Chiapas and were translated into 10 languages

As an outcome, the Zapatistas who had been imprisoned for terrorism, were released

However, the Accords were never ratified by the Mexican Congress, and never became law

A central issue was the definition of “autonomy” and what it would include, particularly land and territorial rights

Instead, the government increased military presence in Chiapas, and continued to fund paramilitary groups

President Ernesto Zedillo

president when the san andres accords were signed- accords never actually became law though

President Vincente Fox

In 2000, Vincente Fox was elected President of Mexico

•  In March 2001, the Zapatistas organized a massive caravan from Chiapas to Mexico City, concluding with a rally of 150,000 people in the Zocalo (main plaza).

•  One March 28th, the EZLN leaders, including Subcomandante Marcos, addressed the Mexican Congress

•  In April 2001, a watered-down version of the Accords was passed, known as the Ley Indigena

•  The Zapatista rejected the law as a “serious offense” that “completely ignores the national and international demand of recognition of Indigenous rights and culture

The Zapatista caravan to Mexico City

In 2000, Vincente Fox was elected President of Mexico

• In March 2001, the Zapatistas organized a massive caravan from Chiapas to Mexico City, concluding with a rally of 150,000 people in the Zocalo (main plaza).

• One March 28th, the EZLN leaders, including Subcomandante Marcos, addressed the Mexican Congress

The Ley Indigena

In 2000, Vincente Fox was elected President of Mexico

•  In March 2001, the Zapatistas organized a massive caravan from Chiapas to Mexico City, concluding with a rally of 150,000 people in the Zocalo (main plaza).

•  One March 28th, the EZLN leaders, including Subcomandante Marcos, addressed the Mexican Congress

•  In April 2001, a watered-down version of the Accords was passed, known as the Ley Indigena

•  The Zapatista rejected the law as a “serious offense” that “completely ignores the national and international demand of recognition of Indigenous rights and culture

Autonomous municipalities

Following the rejection of the Ley Indigena, the EZLN decided that they would unilaterally implement the San Andres Accords without government support

In 2003, they created 32 new “autonomous municipalities” in Chiapas

•  Set up parallel authority systems for governance

•  Autonomous municipalities are grouped into 5 regional administrative units, called “Caracoles”

•  Each Caracol is run by a “Council of Good Government”

• Militarized checkpoints--Some communities will check your passport at the entrance

•  Refuse to pay federal, state, municipal, or church taxes

•  Run their own schools, clinics, and utilities

•  Receive funding from their members and from sympathetic foreign supporters and NGOs

The Caracoles

regional administrative units (5 total) which group 32 “autonomous municipalities” in chiapas, created in 2003  

run by a “council of good government” 

The Council of Good Government

each caracol is run by one

Social dynamics of the autonomous municipalities

Most Indigenous members of the EZLN belong to five linguistic groups: Tzotzil, Tzeltal, Tojolabal, Zoque, and Chol

Spanish and English are used pragmatically for communicating with the Mexican and international press

Women were an integral part of the EZLN movement

•  The original army was 30% female

•  Approximately 50% of the Comandantes leading the movement are women, and are given equal speaking time at events

•  Women-only collectives called Compañeras.

Ethic of egalitarianism and inclusion

Bottom-up strategies for social change and governance

Women and the EZLN movement

Women were an integral part of the EZLN movement

•  The original army was 30% female

•  Approximately 50% of the Comandantes leading the movement are women, and are given equal speaking time at events

•  Women-only collectives called Compañeras.

Zapaturismo

During the 1990s, Chiapas tourism was minimal due to the Zapatista conflict

By 2005, it returned significantly, including Mexican national tourism and international tourism

The Zapatista Rebellion became one of the “features” of the tourist experience in SCLC

•  In the souvenir markets, popular items included embroidered ski masks, Zapatista dolls, T-shirts with revolutionary leaders and slogans, etc.

•  Organized tours to Zapatista municipalities

• International volunteer opportunities organized by Zapatista collectives

•  TierrAdentro, A Zapatista-run restaurant, souvenir shop, and cultural center in SCLC

Zapatistas today

Celebration of anniversary events related to the rebellion

Engagement with pro-indigenous political movements in other countries

Participation in events such as the National Indigenous Congress

Schools for Chiapas—community-based and online training based in Maya traditional lifeways

Continuing attacks by paramilitary groups and assassinations of EZLN leaders

Opposition to large infrastructure projects such as the SCLC- Palenque Highway and the Tren Maya

In December 2023, the Zapatistas announced that the Caracoles and Autonomous Municipalities would be closed to outsiders until further notice

Schools for Chiapas

Schools for Chiapas—community-based and online training based in Maya traditional lifeways

in zapatistas today 

The “Disappeared”

Mass graves from the Guatemalan Civil War

Forensic anthropology

Microloan agencies and microfinance

“Social housing” (fraccionamientos)

Predatory lending

Women and “waiting out”