Psych Research Methods Exam #1

Research Consumer

Reads, evaluates, and uses scientific data.

Ex. A teacher reading a study on test taking and changing their study guide accordingly.

Research producer

Designs studies, collects data, and analyses results

Ex. a psychologist performing any test on individuals

Basic Research

Research that seeks general understanding without immediate practical goal

Ex. A study examines info moves through memory

Applied reseach

Begins with a practical problem and tests a possible solution

Ex. A study tests a program that reduces exam anxiety

Universality

Claims should be judged based on the evidence and not on the persons status

Communality

Scientists should share their methods, data and findings. so other researchers can evaluate

Disinterestedness

Researchers should seek accurate conclusions rather than allowing personal interests to influence the research

Organized skepticism

Scientists should question claims, require evidence, and reamain willing to change their conclusions when new evidence appears

Confirmation bias

Occurs when people seek or interpret evidence in ways that favor what they already believe

Availability heuristic

Makes it so that information that comes easily to mind seems more common or persuasive

Bias blind spot

A good story can feel convincing even when the evidence is weak. Can make our own judgement seem unusually accurate or unbiased

Comparison Groups

help show what would have happened without the treatment

confound

Some alternative factor that could also explain the result

Probabalistic

A conclusion can describe a tendency without explaining individual cases

Journalism

Type of source.

Communicated research to a broad audience. Easier to read, but simplified. PEER REVIEW NOT REQUIRED.

Empirical article

Reports one orginal study or a connected set of studies

Look for the sample, measures, design, analyses, results, and limitations.

Review Article

Organizes and evaluates findings from many studies.

The synthesis may be systematic, but it does not necessarily calculate a pooled effect.

Meta-analysis

Statistically combines results from multiple studies.

Authors calculate an overall effect size and examine variation among studies

Abstract

Part of empirical article.

What did the reserchers study, how, and findings

Introduction

Part of empirical article.

What problem and prior evidence lef to the research question and hypothesis.

Method

Part of empirical article

Who participated, what was measured or manipulated, and what procedure was followed? 

Results

Part of empirical article

What analyses were conducted and what numerical patterns were found?

Disscussion

How do the authors interpret the results, and what limitations and implications do they identify? 

References

Which earlier sources did the authors cite

Frequency claim

One measured variable, usually percentage, level or proportion.

“Thirty percent of students nap each week”

Association claim

Two measured variables, uses terms such as related, linked, predicts, or associated.

More sleep is associated with better concentration

Causal claim

At least two variables, one variable changes another. Temporal.

A later start time improves concentration

Construct validity

Did the measures and manipulations represent the intended constructs?

Statistical validity

How strong, precise, and credible is the numerical conclusion?

Effect size, margin of error, confidence interval, statistical significance, sample size, and outliers. 

External validity

To whom, where, and when can the result generalize? 

Sampling, setting, population, time period, and replication across contexts

Internal Vailidty

Does the evidence justify a causal conclusion?

Random assignment, comparison conditions, order of events, confounds, and other alternative explanations

frequency validity priority

Construct and external

Statistical also matters

Association Validity priority

Construct and statistical

External matters when generalization is claimed

Casual validity Priority

Internal, construct, and statistical is essential

Conceptual Definition

A statement of the construct's central meaning and boundaries

A persistent emotional and cognitive response to perceived threat from snakes

Operational Defenition

The exact procedure used to measure or manipulate the construct

Measured variable

A variable recorded as it naturally occurs.

Dependent Variable

Maipulated Variable

A variable assigned or changed by the researcher. 

Independent Variable

Positive association

High goes with high, low with low

More study time = higher score

Less sleep = less concentration

Negative Association

High with low

More loneliness = less support

Zero Association

The variables have no consistent relationship

Curvelinear

The direction or strength of the relationship changes across the range

• Very low arousal → low performance

• Moderate arousal → high performance

• Very high arousal → low performance

Respect for Persons

Did participants choose freely with adequate information?

Informed consent, right to withdraw, added protection when autonomy is limited.

Beneficence or concern for welfare 

Did researchers minimize harm and justify remaining risk? 

Risk-benefit review, privacy protection, monitoring distress, and appropriate debriefing. 

Justice 

Are the burdens and benefits of research distributed fairly? 

Fair recruitment and attention to whether the people studied can share in the benefits

IRB

reviews research involving human participants.

Informed consent

explains procedures, foreseeable risks, potential benefits, confidentiality, voluntariness, and contact information

Anonymous data

cannot be connected to a participant's identity

Confidential data

can be connected by authorized researchers but must be protected from improper disclosure.

Deception

Researchers may use deception only when it is scientifically justified, risks remain acceptable, and participants receive an appropriate debriefing.

Debriefing

Explains the true purpose and any deception and addresses questions or distress after the experiment. 

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

The study examined syphilis and violated respect for persons, beneficence, and justice through deception, withheld treatment, harm, and exploitation of a disadvantaged group. 

Milgram obedience studies

Participants believed they were harming another person. The main participant risk was psychological distress, and the deception required careful ethical justification and debriefing. 

Fabrication 

Making up data or results that did not occur. 

Falsification

Changing or omitting data, methods, or results so the record becomes misleading.

Plagiarism

Presenting another person's words or ideas as one's own; it violates standards of honesty and attribution

IACUC

The local committee that reviews animal research and animal-care procedures. 

Replacement

Use a nonanimal alternative when it can answer the research question

Reduction

Use the fewest animals needed for a scientifically valid study. 

Refinement 

Change housing, care, or procedures to reduce pain and distress

Core Feature

Is this quality part of what the construct means?

Perceiving that dependable help is available when needed

Indicator

Is this an observable response that may reveal the construct?

Contacting a trusted friend when upset

Cause

Could this experience increase or decrease the construct?

Moving far away from an established network

Consequence

Could this outcome follow from a high or low level of the construct?

Feeling less isolated during a stressful week

Neighboring construct

Is this related but conceptually distinct?

Extraversion or general sociability

Clear

Can be understood by a reader who does not already know the construct

Central

Includes at least three distinct defining features

Bounded

Distinguishes the construct from a related idea

Usable

Provides enough guidance for writing questionnaire items

Trait Measurement

Ask what is typical or generally true for the respondent. 

A frequency scale such as Never to Always often fits. 

State

Ask what is true right now or at this very moment. 

An agreement or intensity scale can capture current strength