APUSH Unit 8 Vocabulary

United Nations

Security Council, General Assembly, Secretary-General; Only the Security Council could act on substantive issues through investigation. The General Assembly met and talked. A secretariat, headed by a Secretary-General, was to perform the organization's administrative work.

Superpowers

The name given to the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. because of their dominance in the arms race and economic struggle for world power. Both countries had nuclear bombs by the late 1940's and 1950's.

Iron Curtain

During the Cold War, it was a political metaphor used to describe the political and later physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991.

Containment

A member of the State Department felt that the best way to keep Communism out of Europe was to confront the Russians wherever they tried to spread their power. This was known as…

Truman Doctrine

Stated that the U.S. would support any nation threatened by Communism.

Marshall Plan

Introduced by the Secretary of State in 1947; he proposed massive and systematic American economic aid to Europe to revitalize the European economies after WWII and help prevent the spread of Communism.

NSC-68

advocated for: A dramatic increase in defense spending, including the development of the hydrogen bomb, increased military aid to allies, a rollback of global Communist expansion, and a rejection of détente and containment of the Soviet Union

Alger Hiss

In 1948, a man who used to work for the State Department was accused of being a Soviet spy. His accuser was Whittaker Chambers, who had once been a communist himself. This case was investigated by Congressman Richard Nixon, who became famous because of it. It involved claims that he had given secret government documents to the Soviets. It ended with him going to prison in 1950 for lying under oath (they couldn't charge him with spying because too much time had passed). The case made many Americans worry that Soviet spies might be working in high government positions.

Berlin Blockade/Berlin Airlift

April 1, 1948 - Russia under Stalin surrounded Berlin completely in the hopes that the West would give the entire city to the Soviets to administer. To bring in food and supplies, the U.S. and Great Britain mounted air lifts that became so intense that, at their height, an airplane was landing in West Berlin every few minutes. West Germany was a republic under Franc, the U.S., and Great Britain. Berlin was located entirely within Soviet-controlled East Germany.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Chartered April 1949. The 11 member nations agreed to fight for each other if attacked. It is an international military force for enforcing its charter.

Warsaw Pact

To counter the NATO buildup, the Soviets formed this military organization with the nations of Eastern Europe. Also gave Russia an excuse for garrisoning troops in these countries.

Fall of China

Mao Tse-Tung led the Communists in China. Because of the failure to form a coalition government between Chiang Kai-Shek and the Communists, civil war broke out in China after WWII. The Communists won in 1949, but the new government was not recognized by much of the world, including the U.S.

Korean War

After WWII, this nation had been partitioned along the 38th parallel into a northern zone governed by the Soviet Union, and a southern zone controlled by the U.S. In 1950, after the Russians had withdrawn, leaving a communist government in the North, the North invaded the South. The U.N. raised an international army led by the U.S. to stop the North. It was the first use of U.N. military forces to enforce international peace. Called a limited war, because the fighting was to be confined solely to the Korean peninsula, rather than the countries involved on each side attacking one another directly.

Arms race

a competition between nations for superiority in the development and accumulation of weapons, especially between the US and the former Soviet Union during the Cold War

Hydrogen Bomb

It was designed to be significantly more destructive than the atomic bomb. The development and testing of this bomb heightened Cold War tensions and led to widespread fear of nuclear war among Americans.

Dien Bien Phu

France had exercised colonial control of Indochina until WWII. After Japan's defeat in 1945, the Viet Minh seized Hanoi and declared the North an independent republic. War with France broke out in 1946. In the Spring of 1954, the Viet Minh surrounded and destroyed the primary French fortress in North Vietnam. Led to the withdrawal of France from Indochina.

Massive Retaliation

In the 1950's after Stalin died, Dulles and Eisenhower warned the Soviets that if aggression was undertaken, the U.S. would retaliate with its full nuclear arsenal against the Soviet Union itself. However, the U.S. would not start conflicts.

Brinkmanship

The principle of not backing down in a crisis, even if it meant taking the country to the brink of war. Policy of both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. during the Cold War.

Peaceful coexistence

Khrushchev's proposal that the U.S. and U.S.S.R. could compromise and learn to live with each other.

U-2 Incident

the Soviets shot down an American spy plane flying over their territory. This embarrassing incident: Forced Eisenhower to admit the US was conducting secret spy flights over Soviet territory; Ruined a planned peace meeting in Paris; Ended a brief period of better relations between the superpowers

Bay of Pigs

1400 American-trained Cuban expatriates left from Nicaragua to try to topple Castro's regime, landing in southern Cuba. They had expected a popular uprising to sweep them to victory, but the local populace refused to support them. When promised U.S. air cover also failed to materialize, the invaders were easily killed or captured by the Cuban forces. Many of the survivors were ransomed back to the U.S. for $64 million. President Kennedy had directed the operation.

Cuban Missile Crisis

October 14-28, 1962 - After discovering that the Russians were building nuclear missile launch sites in Cuba, the U.S. announced a quarantine of Cuba, which was really a blockade, but couldn't be called that since blockades are a violation of international law. After 6 days of confrontation that led to the brink of nuclear war, Khrushchev backed down and agreed to dismantle the launch sites.

ICBM

long-range nuclear missiles capable of being fired at targets on the other side of the globe. The reason behind the Cuban Missile Crisis -- Russia was threatening the U.S. by building launch sites for these missiles in Cuba.

G.I. Bill of Rights 1944 - Servicemen's Readjustment Act, also called the G.I. Bill of Rights

Granted $13 billion in aid for former servicemen, ranging from educational grants to housing and other services to assist with the readjustment to society after demobilization.

Baby Boom

refers to the significant increase in birth rates that occurred in the United States from approximately 1946 to 1964, following World War II. This demographic phenomenon resulted from various factors, including a strong economy, social stability, and a cultural emphasis on family life. It had far-reaching impacts on American society, influencing everything from education and housing to consumerism and the workforce.

Levittown

a planned community in the United States that was built in the 1940s and 1950s, designed to provide affordable housing for returning World War II veterans. It symbolizes the post-war housing boom and the rise of suburban living, characterized by mass production techniques that allowed for quick construction and affordability, reflecting the economic prosperity of the time

Rock n’ Roll

This music style developed as a blend of African American rhythm and blues with white country music. Artists like Elvis Presley brought this exciting new sound to mainstream audiences, creating music that: Appealed directly to teenage listeners; Often shocked parents with its energy and suggestive performances; Crossed racial boundaries by bringing black musical influences to white audiences; Created a separate youth culture with its own fashion, language, and values

Taft-Hartley Act

1947 - The act amended the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 and imposed certain restrictions of the money and power of labor unions, including a prohibition against mandatory closed shops.

Fair Deal

Truman's policy agenda -- he raised the minimum wage from 65 to 75 cents an hour, expanded Social Security benefits to cover 10 million more people, and provided government funding for 100,000 low-income public housing units and for urban renewal.

National Security Acts

Created the cabinet post of Secretary of Defense, the CIA, and the National Security Council. 1949 - Created NATO.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

A Committee in the House of Representatives that was founded on a temporary basis in 1938 to monitor activities of foreign agents. Made a standing committee in 1945. During World War II it investigated pro-fascist groups, but after the war it turned to investigating alleged communists. From 1947-1949, it conducted a series of sensational investigations into supposed communist infiltration of the U.S. government and the Hollywood film industry.

Sen. Joseph McCarthy (1908-1957), McCarthyism

Wisconsin Senator who began a sensational campaign in February 1950 by asserting that the U.S. State Department had been infiltrated by Communists. In 1953 became Chair of the Senate Sub-Committee on Investigations and accused the Army of covering up foreign espionage. The hearings made him look so foolish that further investigations were halted.

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

Arrested in the Summer of 1950 and executed in 1953, they were convicted of conspiring to commit espionage by passing plans for the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union.

Twenty-Second Amendment

It limited the number of terms that a president may serve to two. Was brought on by FDR's 4-term presidency.

Interstate Highways Act

Began federal funding for an interstate highway system.

Sputnik

October 1957 - The first artificial satellite sent into space, launched by the Soviets. Led to the space race.

NASA

was created as a response to the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, which marked the beginning of the space race

Space Race

a competition between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War, aimed at achieving significant milestones in space exploration and technology. This rivalry reflected broader geopolitical tensions and was marked by major events such as satellite launches and human spaceflight missions. The race not only demonstrated technological prowess but also symbolized ideological supremacy between capitalism and communism.

National Defense Education Act (NDEA Act)

1958 - This created a multi-million-dollar loan fund for college students and granted money to states for upgrading curriculum in the sciences and foreign languages.

"Military-Industrial Complex"

Eisenhower first coined this phrase when he warned Americans against it in his last State of the Union Address. He feared that the combined lobbying efforts of the armed services and industries that contracted with the military would lead to excessive Congressional spending

Fair Employment Practices Committee

Enacted by executive order 8802 on June 25, 1941, to prohibit discrimination in the armed forces.

Jackie Robinson

an American professional baseball player who became the first African-American to play in Major League Baseball in the modern era. He broke the color line when he started at first base for the Brooklyn Dodgers on April 15, 1947.

Desegregation of the Armed Forces, 1948

Enacted by executive order 9981 establishing a policy of racial equality in the Armed Forces "be put into effect as rapidly as possible." He also created a committee to ensure its implementation.

Brown v. The Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas

1954 - The Supreme Court overruled Plessy v. Ferguson, declared that racially segregated facilities are inherently unequal and ordered all public schools desegregated.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

December 1955 - In Montgomery, Alabama, Rosa Parks refused to give up her bus seat for a White man as required by city ordinance. It started the Civil Rights Movement and an almost nationwide bus boycott lasting 11 months.

Mansfield ISD push back to integration

In 1956, it became the first school district in the state ordered by a federal court to desegregate. The school board approved the measure and allowed Mansfield High School to desegregate. The mayor and police chief of Mansfield did not approve of this measure. When school started on August 30, 1956, they joined over 300 whites in front of Mansfield High School. Their goal was to prevent the enrollment of the three Black students. The town turned into complete turmoil as three Black effigies were hanged as part of the demonstration. Texas Governor Allan Shivers was a noted segregationist and used the power of his office to resist implementation of Brown v. Board of Education. Shivers dispatched Texas Rangers to prevent integration. Shivers then authorized the Mansfield Independent School District to send its Black students to Fort Worth, Texas. By doing this the school district had effectively ignored a federal court order for integration.

Little Rock, Arkansas Crisis

1957 - Governor Faubus sent the Arkansas National Guard to prevent nine Black students from entering a high school. Eisenhower sent in U.S. paratroopers to ensure the students could attend class.

Civil Rights Act, 1957

Established the Civil Rights section of the Justice Department and empowered federal prosecutors to obtain court injunctions against interference with the right to vote.

Civil Rights Act, 1960

It gave the Federal Courts the power to register Black voters and provided for voting referees who served wherever there was racial discrimination in voting, making sure Whites did not try to stop Blacks from voting.

Sweatt v. Painter, 1950

Segregated law school in Texas was held to be an illegal violation of civil rights, leading to open enrollment.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

Headed by Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., a coalition of churches and Christians organizations who met to discuss civil rights.

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

1941-42 - Interracial until 1962, when it became predominately Black, after 1964, only Blacks were allowed to join. It concentrated on organizing votes for Black candidates and political causes, successful even in states like Mississippi and Alabama.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

Organized in the fall of 1960 by Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. as a student civil rights movement inspired by sit-ins, it challenged the status quo and walked the back roads of Mississippi and Georgia to encourage Blacks to resist segregation and to register to vote.

Sit-ins

a tactic of nonviolent civil disobedience. The demonstrators enter a business or a public place and remain seated until forcibly evicted or until their grievances are answered. Greenville, N.C.

freedom rides

bus trips through the American South in 1961 to protest segregated bus terminals

"I have a dream" speech

Given August 1963 from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

March on Washington, 1963

August - 200,000 demonstrators converged on the Lincoln Memorial to hear Dr. King's speech and to celebrate Kennedy's support for the civil rights movement.

Malcolm X

One-time pimp and street hustler, converted to a Black Muslim while in prison. At first urged Blacks to seize their freedom by any means necessary, but later changed his position and advocated racial harmony. He was assassinated in February 1965.

Stokely Carmichael

In 1966, as chair of SNCC, he called to assert Black Power. Supporting the Black Panthers, he was against integration.

Black Panthers

Led by Bobby Seale and Huey Newton, they believed that racism was an inherent part of the U.S. capitalist society and were militant, self-styled revolutionaries for Black Power.

Black Power

A slogan used to reflect solidarity and racial consciousness, used by Malcolm X. It meant that equality could not be given, but had to be seized by a powerful, organized Black community.

Twenty-Fourth Amendment

1964 - It outlawed taxing voters, i.e. poll taxes, at presidential or congressional elections, as an effort to remove barriers to Black voters.

De Facto, De Jure segregation

the first part means "it is that way because it just is," and the second part means that there are rules and laws behind it. In 1965, President Johnson said that getting rid of this type of segregation was not enough.

Selma to Montgomery Marches

a series of three protest marches held in 1965, aimed at securing voting rights for African Americans in the South. These marches were organized in response to systemic racial discrimination that prevented Black citizens from exercising their right to vote, and they highlighted the struggle for civil rights during a pivotal moment in the movement. The marches ultimately led to the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which aimed to eliminate barriers to voting for African Americans.

Watts Riots

a series of violent disturbances that occurred in a Los Angeles neighborhood from August 11 to August 17, 1965, sparked by racial tensions and frustrations over social injustices. This event highlighted the struggles faced by African Americans in urban areas, reflecting the broader context of civil rights issues and the fight against systemic racism during the 1960s.

Civil Rights Act of 1964, Public Accommodations Section of the Act

This portion of the Act stated that public accommodations could not be segregated and that nobody could be denied access to public accommodations on the basis of race.

Voting Rights Act, 1965

Passed by Congress in 1965, it allowed supervisors to register Blacks to vote in places where they had not been allowed to vote before.

Loving v. Virginia

a landmark civil rights decision of the U.S. Supreme Court that ruled that laws banning interracial marriage violate the Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution

Immigration Act of 1965

a significant piece of legislation that reformed the U.S. immigration system by abolishing the national origins quota system, which had favored European immigrants, and establishing a new framework that prioritized family reunification and skilled immigrants. This act marked a major shift in U.S. immigration policy, reflecting changing attitudes towards race, ethnicity, and immigration during a time of social upheaval and reform.

Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969)

North Vietnamese leader who had led the resistance against the Japanese during WW II and at the end of the war had led the uprising against the French Colonial government. He had traveled in Europe, was an ardent Communist, and became President of the North Vietnamese government established after the French withdrawal. Often called the George Washington of North Vietnam.

Viet Cong

Name given to the guerilla fighters on the Communist side. The North Vietnamese Army (NVA) were regular troops.

Geneva Conference, 1954

French wanted out of Vietnam; the agreement signed by Ho Chi Minh France divided Vietnam on the 17th parallel, confining Minh's government to the North. In the South, an independent government was headed by Diem.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

August 1964 - After the U.S. Navy ship Maddux reportedly was fired on, the U.S. Congress passed this resolution which gave the president power to send troops to Vietnam to protect against further North Vietnamese aggression.

Operation Rolling Thunder

a sustained bombing campaign conducted by the United States against North Vietnam from 1965 to 1968, aimed at weakening the enemy's will to fight and supporting South Vietnamese forces. This operation marked a significant escalation of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, as it was the first major offensive air campaign targeting North Vietnamese infrastructure and military capabilities.

Domino Theory

1957 - It stated that if one country fell to Communism, it would undermine another and that one would fall, producing a domino effect.

Tet Offensive

1968, during the Vietnam lunar new year - Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army raiding forces attacked provincial capitals throughout Vietnam, even seizing the U.S. embassy for a time. U.S. opinion began turning against the war.

Kent State Incident, Jackson State Incident

May 4, 1970 - National Guardsmen opened fire on a group of students protesting the Vietnam War.

Police opened fire in a dormitory.

Pentagon Papers

they were part of a top-secret government study on the Vietnam War and said that the U.S. government had lied to the citizens of the U.S. and the world about its intentions in Vietnam.

My Lai

An American unit destroyed this village, killing many women and children. The incident was not revealed to the public until 20 months later. Lt. Calley, who led the patrol, was convicted of murder and sentenced to 10 years for killing 20 people.

Bombing of Laos and Cambodia

U.S. bombed North Vietnamese positions in these areas. Technically illegal because these regions were neutral but done because North Vietnam was itself illegally moving its troops through those areas. Not learned of by the American public until July 1973.

Vietnamization

The effort to build up South Vietnamese troops while withdrawing American troops; an attempt to turn the war over to the Vietnamese.

Paris Accord, 1973

U.S. signed a peace treaty with North Vietnam and began withdrawing troops. On April 25, 1975, South Vietnam was taken over by North Vietnam in violation of the treaty.

Tinker v. Des Moines, 1969

Five students in this city, decided to wear black armbands to school in protest of American involvement in the Vietnam War. This was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court that recognized the First Amendment rights of students in U.S. public schools.

Beatniks

a group of American writers and artists in the 1950s and early 1960s known for their rejection of mainstream values and exploration of alternative lifestyles. They played a significant role in shaping the youth culture of the 1960s, emphasizing spontaneity, nonconformity, and a deep appreciation for jazz music, poetry, and existential philosophy. Their countercultural movements laid the groundwork for later social revolutions, including the hippie movement.

Woodstock

a music festival held in August, 1969, in Bethel, New York, which became a defining moment for the youth culture of the 1960s. It was a gathering that celebrated peace, love, and music, attracting over 400,000 attendees and showcasing legendary performances from iconic artists. The event symbolized the counterculture movement, reflecting the desires for social change and unity among the youth during a turbulent time in American history.

Credibility gap

a difference in perception between the government and its people. It occurs when there is a disconnect between what is being told to the people and what they actually believe. It became part of American culture during the Vietnam War.

Silent majority

a phrase introduced by President Richard Nixon to refer to a significant number of Americans who supported his policies but chose not to express their views.

Rachel Carson, Silent Spring

An American marine biologist wrote in 1962 about her suspicion that the pesticide DDT, by entering the food chain and eventually concentrating in higher animals, caused reproductive dysfunctions. In 1973, DDT was banned in the U.S. except for use in extreme health emergencies.

Berlin Wall

The Soviet Union, under Nikita Khruschev, erected a barrier between East and West Berlin to keep people from fleeing from the East after Kennedy asked for an increase in defense funds to counter Soviet aggression

Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 1963

this treaty was signed on August 5, 1963, and prohibited nuclear testing undersea, in air and in space. Only underground testing was permitted. It was signed by all major powers except France and China.

"Flexible Response"

Kennedy abandoned Eisenhower's theory of massive nuclear war in favor of a military that could respond fluidly to any situation at any time, in different ways.

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)

Formed in 1962 in Port Huron, Michigan, this organization condemned anti-Democratic tendencies of large corporations, racism, and poverty and called for a participatory Democracy.

Great Society

Platform for LBJ's campaign, it stressed the 5 P's: Peace, Prosperity, anti-Poverty, Prudence and Progress.

Office of Economic Opportunity

Part of the war on poverty, it was headed by R. Sargent Shiver and was ineffective due to the complexity of the problem. It provided Job Corps, loans, training, VISTA, and educational programs.

War on Poverty

Johnson figured that since the Gross National Profit had risen, the country had lots of extra money "just lying around," so he'd use it to fight poverty. It started many small programs, Medicare, and Head Start, and reorganized immigration to eliminate national origin quotas. It was put on hold during the Vietnam War.

Elementary and Secondary Act

Provided federal funding for primary and secondary education and was meant to improve the education of poor people. This was the first federal program to fund education.

Medicare

provided, under Social Security, for federal subsidies to pay for the hospitalization of sick people aged 65 and over

Medicaid

a government-sponsored health insurance program that provides medical assistance to individuals and families with low income. Established in 1965 as part of the Great Society programs, it aimed to improve access to healthcare for the economically disadvantaged

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)

Created by Congress in 1965, it was the 11th cabinet office. Afro-American economist Dr. Robert C. Weaver was named head, and the department regulated and monitored housing and suburban development. It also provided rent supplements for low-income families.

New Left

Coalition of younger members of the Democratic party and radical student groups. Believed in participatory democracy, free speech, civil rights, and racial brotherhood, and opposed the war in Vietnam.