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What was the main aim of Henry VII's foreign policy
To secure his Crown and dynasty through defensive, reactive measures.
Which countries was Henry VII initially concerned about
France, Brittany, Spain, Burgundy, and Scotland.
What were Henry VII's three main foreign policy priorities
National security, recognition of the Tudor dynasty, and defence of English trading interests.
Did Henry VII aim to expand English power in Europe
No, he avoided grand ambitions and did not seek to restart the Hundred Years War with France.
What key event happened in 1487
French invasion of Brittany.
What were the key treaties signed in 1489
Treaty of Redon (England and Brittany) and Treaty of Medina del Campo (England and Spain).
Why did Henry invade France in 1492
To pressure France into negotiation and stop them supporting Yorkist claimants.
What treaty followed the 1492 invasion of France
The Treaty of Etaples, in which France agreed to pay a pension and not support Henry's enemies.
What was the Magnus Intercursus (1496)
A major commercial treaty between England and Burgundy that improved trading relations.
What happened in 1497 regarding Scotland
Truce of Ayton was signed after earlier hostilities, improving Anglo-Scottish relations.
What significant royal marriage occurred in 1501
Prince Arthur married Catherine of Aragon.
What major event happened in 1502
Prince Arthur died, threatening the Anglo-Spanish alliance.
Which royal marriage occurred in 1503
Princess Margaret married James IV of Scotland, strengthening ties with Scotland.
What happened in 1506 that impacted Burgundy
Philip of Burgundy and Juana of Castile landed in England; the Malus Intercursus was signed, and Philip died later that year.
What was Brittany's status before the French invasion
A semi-independent fiefdom under suzerainty of the French Crown.
Who ruled Brittany before the French invasion
Duke Francis II.
Why was Duchess Anne's inheritance problematic
She was female, and France sought to exploit her inability to rule independently to absorb Brittany.
Why was Henry VII concerned about French control of Brittany
He felt an obligation to the Bretons and feared an increased French threat if Brittany fell to France.
What did Henry do in response to the French threat to Brittany in 1489
He summoned Parliament to grant extraordinary revenue to fund an army.
What treaty did England and Brittany sign in 1489
The Treaty of Redon.
What did the Treaty of Redon agree
Duchess Anne would pay for a small English army to defend Brittany from France.
Who was Maximilian I and why did he oppose French control of Brittany
Holy Roman Emperor-elect, married by proxy to Duchess Anne, and wanted to keep Brittany independent from France.
What was the outcome of the French invasion
Despite the Treaty of Redon and Henry's intervention, Duchess Anne was forced to marry Charles VIII of France, uniting Brittany and France.
What did Anne of Brittany do after the English army arrived
She surrendered and reluctantly married Charles VIII of France.
What was the result of Anne's marriage to Charles VIII for England
The English army was stranded, Maximilian lost interest, and Henry VII was left in a weak position.
Who began seeking French support at this time
Perkin Warbeck, a pretender to the English throne.
How did Henry VII respond to this setback
He launched an invasion of France in 1492.
Why did Henry choose to invade France late in the campaigning season
He knew, via his agents, that Charles VIII was more focused on invading Italy and would want peace quickly.
What treaty was signed as a result of Henry's invasion
The Treaty of Etaples in November 1492.
What did Charles VIII agree to in the Treaty of Etaples
To withdraw support for Perkin Warbeck and pay Henry a pension.
What were the outcomes for Henry VII from the Treaty of Etaples
He defended national and dynastic interests, gained financial compensation, and improved Anglo-French relations.
Why was France significant in European politics during Henry VII's reign
France was the most powerful country and was trying to bring duchies like Brittany and Burgundy under direct royal control.
What historical conflict influenced Anglo-French relations
The Hundred Years War (1337-1453).
What was the Holy Roman Empire
A loose federation of around 300 states, mostly in modern-day Germany.
Who ruled the Holy Roman Empire during Henry VII's reign
Maximilian I, elected in 1486 and emperor from 1493.
What happened to the Duchy of Burgundy after Duke Charles the Bold's death in 1477
Its lands were taken by the French Crown.
Who inherited the title of Duke of Burgundy and control over the Low Countries
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, through marriage.
What effect did the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella have on Spain
It gave Spain a façade of unity, though Isabella's death in 1504 weakened this and led to internal conflict.
Why did developments in Spain matter to Henry VII
Ferdinand's conflict to regain control over Castile influenced Henry's foreign policy decisions.
What was unusual about Ireland's status during this period
It was not an independent state and had been under English control since the 12th century via the title 'Lord of Ireland'.
Why was Scotland a threat to England
It shared a border with England and had a strong anti-English alliance with France, known as the 'auld alliance'.
What was the Intercursus Magnus
A major commercial treaty (1496) between England and Burgundy that restored normal trading links.
What was the Intercursus Malus
A trade agreement from 1506 that aimed to give England stronger trading rights but was never fully enforced.
Why was Burgundy important for English trade
Most English exports went through Antwerp and Bruges, which were under Burgundian control.
Who was Margaret of Burgundy and why was she a threat to Henry VII
She was the sister of Edward IV and Richard III, and a key supporter of Yorkist claimants like Perkin Warbeck.
How did Margaret influence Burgundy's stance towards England
She encouraged Maximilian and Philip to support Yorkist threats, straining relations with Henry VII.
What did Henry VII do in response to Burgundy's support for Warbeck
He imposed a trade embargo on Burgundy to pressure them to withdraw support.
What problem did the trade embargo create for Henry
It put his goals of dynastic security and commercial success in conflict, damaging his popularity with English merchants.
How were relations restored after Warbeck left Burgundy
Through the Intercursus Magnus in 1496, which ended the trade embargo.
Why did Anglo-Burgundian relations become important again in 1504
The death of Queen Isabella of Castile led to power struggles that involved Burgundy and Spain.
What were the two key outcomes of the 1506 Treaty of Windsor
The proposed (but unenforced) Intercursus Malus and the handover of the Yorkist Earl of Suffolk, whom Henry imprisoned.
What was a papal dispensation
Permission from the Pope to be exempt from Church laws, granted only in special or unusual circumstances.
What was the Treaty of Medina del Campo (1489)
A treaty between England and Spain that promised mutual protection, non-support for rebels, and a marriage alliance between Arthur and Catherine of Aragon.
What were the issues with implementing the treaty
Ferdinand was hesitant due to the threat from Perkin Warbeck and disputes over Catherine's dowry.
When did Arthur and Catherine's marriage take place
In 1501, after final agreement in 1499.
What complication followed Arthur's death in 1502
Henry VII proposed Catherine marry his second son, Prince Henry, but this needed papal dispensation and Ferdinand was reluctant.
Why did Henry VII lose enthusiasm for the marriage in 1504
Isabella's death weakened Ferdinand's power, and Henry supported Juana and Philip instead.
What happened when Juana and Philip were shipwrecked in 1506
They took refuge in England, giving Henry a diplomatic opportunity.
What did Henry secure through the Treaty of Windsor (1506)
The Intercursus Malus, return of the Earl of Suffolk, a proposed marriage with Margaret of Burgundy, and recognition of Juana and Philip as rulers of Castile.
Why did Philip's death cause problems for Henry
Juana was declared mad, Ferdinand regained control of Castile, and Henry was left isolated.
Did Prince Henry and Catherine eventually marry
Yes, but only after Henry VII's death, when Henry VIII became king.
Who was James IV and when did he become king
James IV became King of Scotland in 1488 at the age of 15.
When and why did tensions rise between England and Scotland
Tensions rose in 1495 when James IV supported Perkin Warbeck and offered him hospitality and a marriage alliance.
What did Warbeck do with Scottish support in 1496
Warbeck, backed by James IV, invaded England with a small army but quickly retreated after failing to gain support.
What was Henry VII's response to Warbeck's invasion
Henry raised a larger army to invade Scotland, which led to the Cornish Rebellion in 1497.
What event helped improve Anglo-Scottish relations after 1497
The Truce of Ayton in 1497 ended hostilities and began a period of better relations.
What happened to Perkin Warbeck after relations improved
Warbeck was no longer useful to James IV and was executed in 1499.
What was agreed between England and Scotland in 1502
The Treaty of Perpetual Peace arranged the marriage of James IV to Henry VII's daughter, Margaret Tudor.
When did the marriage between James IV and Margaret Tudor take place
The marriage took place in 1503.
Was Henry VII's policy towards Scotland ultimately successful
Yes, he secured peace and strengthened the Tudor dynasty through marriage and diplomacy.
Who was the dominant Irish noble during Henry VII's reign
Gerald Fitzgerald, 8th Earl of Kildare.
What region of Ireland was under direct English control
The Pale, around Dublin.
Why did Henry VII mistrust Kildare
Kildare supported Yorkist claimants Lambert Simnel (1486) and Perkin Warbeck (1491).
What change did Henry make in ruling Ireland in response
He tried direct rule through English officials, appointing his son Prince Henry as Lieutenant and Sir Edward Poynings as deputy.
What was Poynings' Law (1495)
It stated the Irish Parliament could not pass laws without English Crown approval.
Why was Poynings' strategy abandoned
It was too expensive and Warbeck returned to Ireland in 1495, forcing Henry to focus resources elsewhere.
What did Henry do after recalling Poynings
He reinstated Kildare as deputy, relying on his loyalty.
How did Kildare behave after 1496
He abandoned Yorkist support and served Henry loyally, restoring some stability.
By 1500, what was Henry's position in Ireland
He had achieved relative peace and control, largely due to Kildare's cooperation.
What does the 1507 quote from Henry suggest
Henry believed his realm was secure and surrounded by friendly powers, giving a sense of lasting peace.
What was Henry VII's original plan for the succession
Prince Arthur was heir apparent, received a princely education, and was established with his own court at Ludlow.
How many of Henry VII's children survived childhood
Four children survived: Arthur, Henry (later Henry VIII), Margaret, and Mary.
What event caused insecurity over the succession
The sudden death of Prince Arthur in April 1502.
Why was Arthur's death a problem for the Tudor dynasty
It left the young Prince Henry as heir, raising fears of instability from having a child king like Edward V.
What Yorkist threat re-emerged after 1502
The Earl of Suffolk gained influence, alongside concerns about Richard de la Pole and the Duke of Buckingham potentially challenging the throne.
How did Henry VII deal with the Earl of Suffolk
He secured Suffolk's arrest by pressing Philip of Burgundy and Maximilian to hand him over when they took refuge in England in 1506.
What internal division existed at court as Henry's health declined
A split between the Council Learned members (Empson and Dudley) and other advisers like Bishop Fox and Sir Thomas Lovell.
What happened immediately after Henry VII's death in April 1509
The king's death was kept secret while Bishop Fox, Richard Weston, and Lady Margaret Beaufort organised succession plans excluding Empson and Dudley.
What happened to Empson and Dudley after the king's death
They were arrested and imprisoned as part of the new regime's break from Henry VII's harsh financial policies.
What message did the new regime send
That Henry VIII's government would be different, distancing itself from his father's unpopular methods and officials.
What was the purpose of royal marriage alliances
To enhance power, influence, and ensure dynastic security through diplomatic ties.
Which marriage alliance did Henry VII arrange with Spain
He arranged for Catherine of Aragon to marry his eldest son Arthur, then after Arthur's death, to his younger son Henry.
How did Henry VII strengthen relations with Scotland
By arranging the marriage of his daughter Margaret to James IV of Scotland.
What was the significance of Margaret's marriage to James IV
It strengthened the alliance with Scotland and weakened Perkin Warbeck's threat to Henry's throne.
What marriage did Henry VII arrange for his daughter Mary
She later married King Louis XII of France during Henry VIII's reign to secure peaceful Anglo-French relations.
Did Henry VII remarry after Elizabeth's death
No, although he considered marriage alliances with Castile, Aragon, France, and the Holy Roman Empire, none happened.
Why did Henry VII's plans for remarriage fail
The princesses were reluctant to marry him and Henry lost enthusiasm for remarriage himself.
What was the overall success of Henry VII's foreign policy despite failures
Though some specific policies failed and were costly, Henry left England and his dynasty internationally secure with no foreign threats to internal affairs.
How much did Henry VII give to the Habsburgs between 1505 and 1509
Around £342,000 in cash, plate, or jewels.
What was Henry's main strength that underpinned his foreign policy success
A firm foundation of domestic strength and realistic foreign policy objectives.