Native American History: Disease, Displacement, and Sovereignty

Disease

Introduced illnesses wiped out roughly 90 % of the pre-contact Native American population.

Economic role

Native peoples often assisted European settlers (e.g., guiding, trading), so relations were not uniformly hostile.

War & displacement

Over time, war and disease became the dominant forces reshaping Native-European interactions.

Immunity to Old World diseases

Europeans were less affected by the epidemics that devastated Native populations.

Technology

Access to horses and firearms gave Europeans a military edge over hand-thrown weapons and arrows.

Demographic growth

Rapid establishment of settlements meant European descendants eventually outnumbered Indigenous peoples.

Removal Act of 1830

Authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes, a policy that culminated in the Trail of Tears.

Treaty violations

Both the U.S. government and European settlers frequently breached treaties and ignored Supreme Court rulings to facilitate westward expansion.

Choctaw

Low resistance - most compliant; ~500 of 2,000 survived; harsh journey, high mortality.

Creek

Moderate resistance; similar hardships to Choctaw.

Chickasaw

Higher resistance (better supplies); better transportation, fewer deaths.

Cherokee

Intense legal battles; resisted relocation; ~5,000 forced west; ~3,000 died in camps; ~1,000 died on marches; concentration camps (summer 1838), disease, starvation.

Trail of Tears

Name origin derives from the massive loss of life and suffering experienced during these forced migrations.

Relocation & Maps of Eastern Tribes

Majority of Eastern tribes were moved westward to Oklahoma; the forced migrations are reflected in modern population distribution maps.

Indian Appropriations Act

Created a reservation system intended to control and assimilate Native peoples.

Life on reservations

Loss of traditional lands and cultural practices; forced inter-tribal mixing, leading to internal conflicts.

Transition from hunting to subsistence farming

Led to widespread starvation.

Native American Boarding Schools

Designed to erase Indigenous cultures and replace them with mainstream American values.

Student experience in boarding schools

Separation from families for 4 + years; forced haircuts, abandonment of traditional clothing, and assignment of English names.

Cultural denigration

Teachers often mocked Indigenous customs, fostering shame.

Positive outcomes of boarding schools

Acquisition of academic skills, lifelong friendships, and useful vocational training.

Population

≈ 5 million (≈ 1% of U.S. total).

Residence

≈ 25% live on reservations; ≈ 75% reside off-reservation, primarily in urban and metropolitan areas.

Geographic patterns

Reflect historic forced migrations rather than voluntary settlement choices.

Largest reservation

Navajo Nation, established after a successful demand for a homeland.

Life expectancy at birth

70.1 years (overall); 73.5 years (female); 66.7 years (male); U.S. average 78.4 years.

Self-reported health (fair/poor)

~25% (highest among U.S. groups).

Leading causes of death

Cardiovascular disease, diabetes, liver disease, unintentional injuries.

Natural resource endowments

Significant (oil, minerals, timber); federal restrictions often limit tribal economic sovereignty.

Barriers to economic development

Federal policies can restrict tribal control over natural resources, impeding economic development and influencing health outcomes.

Health & Life Expectancy Disparities

Higher prevalence of heart disease, cancer, chronic liver disease, diabetes, and unintentional injuries.

Contributing factors to health disparities

Limited insurance coverage (≈ ⅓ of Native Americans vs 50%-80% in other groups), lower educational attainment, higher poverty, discrimination in health-service delivery, and cultural barriers.

Educational Attainment - High-school diploma (≥ 25 yr)

34.9% for Native Americans; 25.7% for U.S. total.

Educational Attainment - Bachelor's degree

11.3% for Native Americans; 22.1% for U.S. total.

Educational Attainment - Advanced/professional degree

6.1% for Native Americans; 14.7% for U.S. total.

Unemployment rate

≈ 7.8% (higher than the ≈ 6.4% average).

Median income

Roughly two-thirds of the national median.

Poverty rate

> 25% live in poverty; rates are even higher on reservations.

Job quality

Lower wages and fewer skilled-job opportunities.

Poverty geography

High-poverty counties cluster in many tribal regions.

Insurance coverage

~⅓ for Native American Communities; 50%-80% for General U.S. Population.

Median household income

~66% of U.S. median for Native American Communities; 100% for General U.S. Population.

Common terms for Indigenous peoples

Indigenous peoples, Native peoples, First Nations, Native Americans, American Indian.

Core characteristics of Indigenous peoples

Ancestral ties to pre-colonial societies, self-identification as Indigenous, and external recognition.

Historical Redress & Land Rights in Canada

Creation of a dedicated Inuit territory for ≈ 40,000 people.

Historical Redress & Land Rights in the U.S.

Recent land restitution cases illustrate ongoing legal battles.

Government apologies

Canada issued a formal apology to First Nations; U.S. acknowledgment was embedded in legislation, receiving less public attention.

Tribal sovereignty

Gives tribes control over their affairs, though it can be limited by federal policy.

Tribal Economic Enterprises

Sovereignty enables tribes to run businesses (e.g., gaming, natural-resource management).

Native-owned businesses (2012 data)

California leads the nation, followed by Texas and Little Lake, California.

Place names

54 % of U.S. states, rivers, and towns have Native American origins (e.g., Alabama).

Cultural resurgence

Includes powwows and cultural festivals, and increased representation in literature and the arts.

Language decline

Many Indigenous languages are endangered, often disappearing as their last speakers pass away.

Major colonial powers

England, France, Spain.

Motivations for migration

Religious freedom and persecution escape, political pressures and conflict at home, economic opportunities (trade, land acquisition).

Different colonial strategies

Produced varying advantages (e.g., settlement patterns) and disadvantages (e.g., conflict with Indigenous peoples).

European rise to power

Driven by political and economic desires for power, financial stability, and control over resources in North America.

Modern world economic system

Marked by European expansion and the process of globalization that continues today.

Atlantic world

Became the 'new Mediterranean' for Europeans, linking continents through trade, migration, and cultural exchange.

Doctrine of First Effective Settlement

When a new society is settled, the cultural characteristics of the initial settlement group will have a lasting and outsized effect on the future trajectory of that society.

Key idea of First Effective Settlement

The first group to arrive shapes the cultural landscape more than later, larger groups.

Exception to First Effective Settlement

Later groups can still alter the trajectory, but the initial imprint is often dominant.

Example of First Effective Settlement

Dutch-settled New Amsterdam retains distinct characteristics from the Dutch Golden Age, influencing modern New York City.

Columbian Exchange

A massive, bidirectional transfer of plants, animals, microbes, and people across the Atlantic.

Intentional introductions in Columbian Exchange

Included crops and livestock.

Unintentional hitchhikers in Columbian Exchange

Included pests and disease microbes.

Key Exchanges - Crops

Americas → Europe, Africa, Asia: Tomato, maize, potato.

Key Exchanges - Livestock

Europe → Americas: Cattle, sheep, horses.

Key Exchanges - Microbes

Europe ↔ Americas: Smallpox, measles, yellow fever.

Key Exchanges - People

Africa → Americas (forced): Slave trade.

Key Exchanges - Ideas

Europe ↔ Americas: Agricultural techniques, navigation knowledge.

Tomato Diffusion Example

The tomato first emerged in the Americas and traveled to Europe, becoming a staple of Italian cuisine (e.g., tomato sauce).

Atlantic Slave Trade

Primary focus was to supply labor for plantations, termed the depopulating slave trade.

Demographic loss in West Africa

West Africa suffered the greatest demographic loss due to the Atlantic Slave Trade.

Core Characteristics of Atlantic Slave Trade

Extensive use of mass labor for mineral production and export agriculture, laborers treated as commodities, system designed to supply large numbers of enslaved people at reasonable prices.

Impacts on West Africa

Forced migration stripped the working-age population, undermining economic productivity, orphaned children and abandoned villages created social dislocation, and agricultural disruption occurred.

Agricultural disruption

Crops left unharvested, collapse of the forest-to-desert trade.

Long-term cultural and demographic scars

Persistent effects across the continent.

Colonial Legacies & Racial Attitudes

Integration of slavery-based attitudes, laws, and beliefs forged enduring racial hierarchies in the Americas.

Slave Narratives Assignment

Analyze personal accounts to understand lived experiences of slavery.

Native American Boarding School Material

Examine after the second exam.

Ellis Island Interviews

Optional focus on Galveston arrivals for regional relevance.

Spanish Colonization

First European power to establish large, lasting settlements in the Americas.

Spanish language legacy

Spread across the continent, leaving a lasting colonial legacy.

Doctrine of the 'first effective settlement'

The principle that the first European power to create a durable, organized settlement claims lasting territorial rights.

Key Features of a Spanish Settlement

Plaza and Grid, Missions, Land Grants (Encomiendas & Hacienda), Common Lands.

U.S. Annexation of Texas

Occurred in 1845.

Mexican Cession

Transferring a huge swath of the Southwest to the United States in 1848.

Gadsden Purchase

U.S. paid $10 million to Mexico for land that became southern Arizona and New Mexico.

French Colonization

Focused on northeastern Canada: from the Grand Banks to the St. Lawrence River and interior territories.

Economic base of French Colonization

Fishing, fur trade, and agriculture (cereals, tobacco, corn).

Seigneury (Ribbon) System

Land organization feature with long, narrow strips perpendicular to a river.

Dutch Colonization

Late-1500s Dutch merchants created trade networks in North America.

Land Grant System in Dutch Colonization

Investors received large tracts; they rented them to farmers.

British Colonization

Arrived approximately 100 years after the Spanish, making the U.S. a priority.

Distinctive Characteristics of Colonization

Differences in arrival, settlement pattern, population homogeneity, and economic base among Spanish, French, Dutch, and British.

Adaptations Required

Learning to cultivate new crops and manage forested terrain; embracing Christian missionary work and assimilation of Native Americans.

African Contributions to Colonial Agriculture

Judith Carney highlighted the African origins of rice cultivation in the Americas, especially in the Carolinas.

Technical Knowledge of Enslaved Africans

Enslaved Africans brought technical knowledge crucial for establishing rice economies, shaping the Southern agricultural system.

Cultural Hearth

A region where a distinctive cultural trait originates and subsequently spreads outward.