Neuro exam 2

Correlation

shows how two measures are related to one another but correlation does not imply causation

Examples of correlation

1. brain size = learning scores

2. hormone levels = strength of mating behavior

3. enlarged cerebral ventricles = schizophrenic symptoms

Psychological/behavioral intervention

intervention in a behavior or experience to see how structure or function is altered

Examples of psychological/behavioral intervention

1. put male in presence of female = changes in hormone levels

2. present a visual stimulus = changes in electrical activity of brain

3. giving training = anatomical changes in nerve cells

Somatic intervention

alteration of a structure or function to see how behavior is altered

Example of somatic intervention

1. administer a hormone = strength of mating behavior

2. stimulate brain region electrically = movement toward goal object

3. cut connections between parts of nervous system = recognition of stimulus

Gene

segments of DNA which contain the instructions for building proteins and proteins are the functional molecules that carry out various tasks within cells to influence an organisms trait

Mutation

change in an organisms DNA sequence that can alter protein function, potentially causing malfunctions or loss of functions, impacting brain development and function

Protein function

the diverse roles proteins play in the nervous system

Genotype

the genetic makeup

Phenotype

observable characteristics that result from the genotype

Comparative genomics

to study biological and physiological processes, mimicking aspects of human diseases and conditions, allowing researchers to conduct experiments that would be unethical or impartial in humans

CRISPR ('knockout' animals)

developed to allow us to alter genome of many species, mutate a gene of interest, creating an animal that lacks the function of a particular gene and can introduce novel DNA sequences to create disease models

Dye

injected into brain tissue

Fluorescent labeling

injected or genetically expressed

In situ hybridization

uses complementary probes to find neurons that express specific mRNAs

Immunohistochemistry

uses antibodies to detect the expression of specific proteins

Electrophysiological recordings

involve the use of microelectrodes to measure the electrical activity of cells

intracellular recording

the microelectrode is inserted into the cell

extracellular recording

the microelectrode is placed in the extracellular space near a cell

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

record the summed electrical activity (brain waves) of millions of neurons (primarily cortical neurons) active at once via electrode attached to the scalp

c-Fos immunohistochemistry

is the protein of the cfos immediate early gene

calcium imaging

allows you to monitor calcium levels in a cell in real time

Pet scan (positron emission tomography)

gives images of brain activity or receptor occupancy

fMRI scan (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

detects small changes in brain metabolism characterized by increased oxygen use, in active brain areas

Speed-accuracy trade off

- fMRI has high spatial resolution but slow in making images

- EEG has high temporal resolution but low spatial resolution

Lesion studies

in humans are usually based on 'fortuitous' damage

Pharmacology (Neuropharmacology)

local injection of drug into specific brain areas can help determine if action in a brain area is causing a certain effect

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

uses magnetic fields to stimulate or inhibit specific brain regions

Optogenetics

is the use of genetic tools to induce neurons to become sensitive to light

Chlamydomonas

come from green alga whose habitats include freshwater lakes

Halobacteria

produce several light sensitive proteins, populate very salty water