AP chemistry full year Set

Beta + decay

proton becomes neutron and positron, loses proton

Beta - decay

neutron becomes proton and electron, gains proton

alpha decay

above element 82, loses helium shell

Molarity (M)

M=n/v

Empirical formula from percentage

find moles, then divide by smallest one

Molecules

compounds combined with covalent bonds (ionic bonds are not molecules, ex. NaCl)

Molar mass

neutrons+protons (average of all isotopes)

atomic numbers

the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Electron number

proton #= #electron+charge

Mass spectrometry

x axis is molar mass, y is frequency, tips are different isotope and combinations

charge rule for redox

F=-1, H=+1, O=-1 in order from most to least important

These elements make elements soluble

NH4(+), K(+), Na(+), NO3(-)

Percent Yield

Actual yield/theoretical yield

7 Strong Acids

HCl, HBr, HI, HClO4, HNO3, H2SO4, (HClO3)

8 strong bases

LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2

Parent ion

The combinations of all atoms in mass spectrometry

Pka Rule 1

If pka<7, it is quite acidic, if pka>7, not so much

Electron rule 1

Electrons are waves

Lone pair

same quantum state, opposite spin

N

Principal quantum number, can be 1-7 (infinity)

L

angular momentum, 0-n-1, l=0 for s, l=1 for p, l=2 for d, l=3 for f

mL

magnetic moment, can be -L→L

mS

Magnetic Spin, -1/2 or 1/2

octet Rule

atoms tend to gain or lose e- to achieve at VE; atoms up to Al must follow this rule

Paramagnetic

if it has one or more unpaired electrons

When Ionizing (+charge)

take away e- from the highest N quantum number

Formal Charge

#VE - #Formal E (bonded E/2)

Octet expansion

When element is past Al, it can extend past octet if forced to

Center of Lewis structure

the highest electronegative element

Flourine rule 1

F cannot have more than one bond in Lewis structures

Common Weak Acids

HF, H3PO4, CH3COOH

Common Weak Bases

NH3, CH3COO-, PO4 (3-)

Photoelectron Spectroscopy (PES)

measure of ionization energy, higher energy= higher orbital

Ionization energy trend

upper right corner= higher IE, because nucleus size increases to the right and the number of core electrons increases upwards.

Atomic mass trend

lower right corner= highest AM because there is more protons

Atomic Radius Trend

Lower Left corner=highest AR, because there is more stuff in the nucleus in the left, and increased shielding of VE towards the bottom

Metallic character trend

Lower left corner= highest MC, because higher the Ionization energy, lower the MC

Solubility Rules, Always soluble

Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+, NO3-, C2H3O2-

Solubility Rules, only soluble with certain elements (1)

only with Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+: CO3(2-), PO4(3-)

Solubility Rules, only soluble with certain elements (2)

Only with Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, NH4+: OH-, S2-

Solubility Rules, only insoluble with certain elements (1)

only insoluble with Ag+, Hg2+, Pb2+: Cl-, Br-, I-

Solubility Rules, only insoluble with certain elements (2)

Only insoluble with Sr2+, Ba2+, Ca2+, Ag+, Hg2(2+), Pb2+: SO4(2-)

Bohr Radius

r=Aon²

Electrostatic Energy potential charge between two points

E=q1​q2​​/8πε0​r

To calculate charge, to figure out ionic

q1q2/4πε0​r

To calculate charge, to figure out dipole dipole

M1M2/2πε0​r³

Electronegativity rule

If Electronegativity <.4, it is nonpolar, if between .4-2, it is polar, if above 2, it is ionic

Wavelength/energy rule 1

E(Joules)=h(planck’s constant)*v(hz)

Wavelength/energy rule 2

c(speed of light)=λ(m)*v(hz)

Wavelength/energy rule 3

E(Joules)=(h(planck's constant)*c(speed of light))/λ(m

2 sigma bonds, 0 lone pairs

Electron Geometry: linear Molecular Geometry: linear, 180 degrees

3 sigma bonds, 0 lone pairs

Electron Geometry: trigonal planar Molecular Geometry: trigonal planar, 120 degrees

2 sigma bonds, 1 lone pair

Electron Geometry: trigonal planar Molecular Geometry: bent, <120 degrees

4 sigma bonds, 0 lone pairs

Electron Geometry: tetrahedral Molecular Geometry: tetrahedral, 109.5 degrees

3 sigma bonds, 1 lone pairs

Electron Geometry: tetrahedral Molecular Geometry: trigonal pyramidal, 107 degrees

2 sigma bonds, 2 lone pairs

Electron Geometry: tetarhedral Molecular Geometry: bent, 105 degrees

5 sigma bonds, 0 lone pairs

Electron Geometry: trigonal bipyramidal Molecular Geometry: trigonal bipyramidal, 90 degrees, 120 degrees

4 sigma bonds, 1 lone pairs

Electron Geometry: trigonal bipyramidal Molecular Geometry: seesaw, <90 degrees, <120 degrees

3 sigma bonds, 2 lone pairs

Electron Geometry: trigonal bipyramidal Molecular Geometry: T-shaped, <90 degrees

2 sigma bonds, 3 lone pairs

Electron Geometry: Trigonal bipyramidal Molecular Geometry: linear, 180 degrees

6 sigma bonds, 0 lone pairs

Electron Geometry: octahedral Molecular Geometry: octahedral 90 degrees, 90 degrees

5 sigma bonds, 1 lone pairs

Electron Geometry: octahedral Molecular Geometry: square pyramidal, <90 degrees

4 sigma bonds, 2 lone pairs

Electron Geometry: octahedral Molecular Geometry: square planar, 90 degrees

3 sigma bonds, 3 lone pairs

Electron Geometry: octahedral Molecular Geometry: T-shaped, <90 degrees

2 sigma bonds, 4 lone pairs

Electron Geometry: octahedral Molecular Geometry: linear, 180 degrees

Dipole Dipole

dictated by how big the separation between partial charges and distance

Polarity

dictated by how large the difference in electronegativity is

Hypervalent

Octet rule violated

Axial position

central axis

Trigonal Bipyramidal hybridization rule

If it is nonmetal, trigonal planar sp2, if it is metal, sp3d

Octahedral hybridization rule

if it is nonmetal, linear sp, if it is metal, sp3d2

Ideal Gas Law

P(atm)V(L)=n(moles)R(.0831)T(Kelvins) {PV=nRT}

Density

(P(atm)M(molar mass))/(R(.0831)T(Kelvin)) {(PM)/(RT)}