IB Psychology - Fall Semester Study Guide

Many technological techniques are used to study brain activity, size and structure. Examples include MRI and fMRI.

Techniques to study the brain

Specific parts of the brain perform particular functions. E.g. the amygdala perceives dangerous threats in our environment and activates the HPA axis (stress response) and it also causes a fear response.

Localization of function

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. They can influence behaviour. e.g. testosterone can influence aggression.

Hormones

Any explanation that shows how a specific behaviour helps humans increase their chances of survival and/or procreation. An example is the behaviour of fear - having a healthy fear response and an amygdala that detects fear (and activates the release of stress hormones) can help us avoid danger. SM's case study shows this.

Evolutionary explanation of behaviour

A method used for collecting and analyzing data in psychological research. Examples are true experiments, correlational studies and case studies.

Research method

Thinking refers to the conscious process of considering or reasoning about something and decision making is making a choice based on the consideration of multiple options. Examples of theories include the dual process model of thinking and decision making (system one and system two).

Thinking and decision making

Data that involves descriptions and summaries.

Qualitative data

Research that records and gathers descriptive data regarding participants' subjective experiences of phenomena.

Qualitative research

An observation that takes place in a natural environment.

Naturalistic observation

An observation that involves not telling the subjects that they are being observed (opposite = overt observation).

Covert observation

An observation that involves telling the subjects that they are being observed (opposite = covert observation).

Overt observation

An observation that involves the researcher becoming a member of the group they're observing (opposite = non-participant observation).

Participant observation

An observation that involves the researcher observing the group from an outsiders perspective (opposite = participant observation).

Non-participant observation

An interview conducted on a small group at the same time.

Focus group interview

A style of interview that has topics to cover, but allows flexibility in the order and content of the

questions.

Unstructured interview

An interview that has a guide and some structure, but there is freedom to deviate (in-between a structured and unstructured style of interview).

Semi-structured interview

An in-depth investigation of a single person, group or organization. It uses a range of methods to collect data and draw conclusions.

Case study

A way of analysing qualitative data that requires identifying specific content (coding), group these in sub-themes (subordinate themes) and then finding more general overarching themes (superordinate).

thematic analysis

When the researcher's own opinions, views or beliefs influence the research process.

Researcher Bias

Using more than one data point to gather or analyze data.

Triangulation

When more than one researcher is used to gather or analyze data.

Researcher triangulation

When more than one method is used to gather data.

Methodological triangulation

When data is gathered using the same people and method, but at different points in time.

Data triangulation

A sampling method that involves the researcher selecting participants that they believe will provide them with valuable data for their study.

Purposive sampling

A sampling method that involves using a small group of "seeds" that then go out and recruit other participants.

Snowball sampling

How readily something can be trusted or believed.

Credibility

This is the qualitative equivalent of generalizability, it refers to the extent to which the methods and results of a study could be transferred to a similar context (e.g. group of people).

Transferability

The extent to which the findings from the study could apply to a different context (e.g. people, place, situation).

Generalizability

Getting permission from participants to use their data in a study AFTER the study is conducted (this is particularly relevant for covert observations).

Retrospective consent

The process of continual reflection upon the research process by a researcher. This is done with the aim of maintaining objectivity (and reducing bias) throughout the study

Reflexivity

The scientific study of individual behaviour and mental processes.

Psychology

An observable action. Although in IB Psychology it means actions and mental processes.

Behaviour

The internal tasks we perform with our minds. Examples include thinking, decision making, remembering, and problem solving.

Mental processes /cognition

Anything that has been observed to commonly occur. In other words, it's something that we know happens a lot, and often there might not be an obvious explanation.

Phenomenon

Evidence that has been gathered using observation and/or experimentation.

Empirical evidence

Takes place in a controlled environment, the researcher manipulates and controls all variables except DV

Laboratory experiment

Takes place in a natural environment, impossible to obtain total control so there may be confounding variables, the researcher manipulates the independent variable (IV)

Field experiment

Manipulated "cause" in experiments; also known as a "predictor variable", "manipulated variable", "explanatory variable", "exposure variable"

Independent variable

The measured variable in experiments ("the effect")

Dependent variable

Any variable that is not manipulated nor measured but but should be controlled

Extraneous variable

An extraneous variable which actually influenced the DV and the results of study.

Confounding variable

An association or link between two variables when causational infrences are not allowed. Also a statistical technique that can show whether and how strongly pairs of variables are related.

Correlation

A relationship between two variables such that their values increase or decrease together.

Positive correlation

A relationship between two variables such that as the value of one variable increases, the other decreases.

Negative correlation

When there is a correlation between two variables and there is uncertainty about which variable is influencing which.

Bidirectional ambiquity

The group in an experiment that receives a treatment that is hypothesized to have an effect.

Treatment Group

The group in an experiment that receives a treatment (or no treatment at all) that is hypothesized to not have an effect.

Control Group

Degree to which an experiment truly shows a cause-effect relationship between two factors (or whether some unaccounted-for confounding variables led to the results)

internal validity

A.k.a. generalizability -- degree to which the findings of the study can be generalized to other contexts (other people, other cultures, etc.)

external validity

the idea that cognition should be measured in settings that are as realistic as possible and that the abilities measured should be those needed in real life

ecological validity

This type of sample draws random samples from each subgroup (ethnic, gender, etc.) within the target population -- representative, but expensive/time-consuming to gather

stratified sample

There will be no relationship between variable X and variable Y.

null hypothesis

is a functional neuroimaging procedure using MRI technology that measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow.

fMRI

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

EEG

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

PET scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body

CT scan