Potions and Poisons

Protons

positively charged, located in the nucleus, number of protons = atomic number

Neutrons

no electric charge, located in the nucleus, slightly bigger than protons, contribute to atomic mass, variations in neutron number create isotopes

Electrons

negatively charged, orbit around the nucleus, much smaller than protons and neutrons, essential for chemical reactions between elements

Shells

different energy levels (closet to the nucleus has the lowest energy), electron capacity increases with shell number (2*n² electrons)

Valence Shell

outermost shell, atoms strive for stability by having full shells (8 electrons in the outermost shell aka octet rule), atoms with incomplete outer shells are more reactive and likely to form bonds

Electron Orbitals

electrons occupy space called orbitals rather than fixed paths, they represent regions where electrons are most likely found

Subshells

electrons are divided into subshells (s = 2, p = 6, d = 10 , f = 14) with increasing capacity

Ionic Bonding

involves one atom taking an electron from another atom (occurs when there is a high difference in electronegativity between the atoms)

Properties of Ionic Bonds

typically form in a crystal lattice structure, have a high melting temperature, are water soluble

Covalent Bonding

atoms share electrons (occurs when there is a low difference in electronegativity between atoms)

Properties of Covalent Bonds

typically exist as liquid and gases, not conductive, form true molecule structure, have a low melting temperature, not usually water soluble, often odorous

Electronegativity

tendency of an atom to attract electrons, difference tells what type of bond they form

Trends in Electronegativity

increases from left to right across a period, increases from bottom to top in a group, helium has the highest electronegativity, francium has the lowest electronegativity

Mixtures

composed of two or more substances combined together

Homogeneous Mixture

uniform composition throughout the mixture (ex. lemonade, salt water, air)

Heterogenous Mixtures

inconsistent component ratios throughout (not uniformly mixed) (ex. trail mix, salad, sand and pebbles)

Solutions

a type of homogenous mixture, composed of a solute (solid) dissolved in a solvent (liquid), (ex. salt water)

Compounds

molecules consisting of two or more DIFFERENT elements chemically bonded together (H20, CO2, H202)

Molecules

a group of atoms chemically bonded together, can consist of the same or different elements

Physical Changes

affect the appearance or form of a substance without altering its chemical composition, can be used to separate components of a mixture into their individual parts (ex. tearing paper, boiling water)

Chemical Changes

involve altering a substance to form a new substance with a different chemical composition, the original substances undergo a chemical reaction resulting in new products (ex. burning candle, digesting food)

Chromatography

a laboratory technique used to separate mixtures into their individual components

Retention Factor

(distance moved by compound)/(distance moved by solvent)

Filtration

separates an insoluble solid from a liquid using a filter

Evaporation

separates a solute from a solvent by evaporating the liquid

Simple Distillation

separates a liquid from a solution and retains it

Fractional Distillation

separates a mixture of two miscible liquids

Magnetism

separating mixtures with one part having magnetic properties

Separating Funnel

immiscible liquids can be separated using their density (this process uses a funnel-like device)

Centrifuging

fast spinning machine that can separate solids from liquids

Crystallization

separating solids by making them crystallize

Sedimentation

separating solids from liquid by letting them settle

Precipitation

creating a solid from a solution

Sieving

uses a sieve to separate mixtures based on particle size

Decantation

separates liquids or homogeneous mixtures by allowing one part to settle and pouring off the liquid

Leaching

extracts a solid by dissolving it in a liquid

Winnowing

uses wind to separate lighter solids from heavier ones

Dilution

involves adding a solvent to a solution without adding more solute, reducing the concentration of the solute (equation: C1*V1 = C2*V2)

Ammonia

a colorless gas with the chemical formula NH_3, commonly found in households as a cleaner where it dissolves in water

Dangers of Ammonia

mixing with bleach: produces toxic fumes (such as chloramine gases), can cause severe respiratory damage chemical burns headaches nausea and vomiting

Hydrogen Peroxide

a colorless liquid commonly used as a disinfectant for surfaces and wounds, household concentrations are typically around 3% (found in brown bottles) 

Safety and Ingestion Risks

low concentrations (3%): ingestions of small amounts usually cause minor symptoms like stomach irritation, ingestions of larger quantities can lead to more severe irritation and potential chemical burns

high concentrations: ingesting high concentrations can cause severe symptoms, including burns, internal injury, and in some cases, death

Poison Ivy

grows in most regions of the U.S, often in woods, fields, and along roadsides, especially where vegetation is disturbed, identified by three thin, pointy, and shiny leaves

Leaf Color of Poison Ivy by Season

spring: reddish, summer: green, fall: orange to bronze

Allergic Reaction of Poison Ivy

caused by contact with urushiol, an oily mixture with allergenic properties found in poison ivy, contact can occur by touching the plant directly or indirectly via contaminated objects or pets, symptoms: itching, redness, swelling, and blisters (not contagious)

Urushiol

found in poison ivy, mango trees, lacquer trees, poison oak, and other plants in the anacardiaceae family, named after the japanese word “urushi,” meaning lacquer, a pale yellow liquid with a boiling point of 200 C, can be removed with soap and water if the skin has not absorbed it yet

Ricinus

a fast-growing plant, perennial flowering plant native to tropical regions of Africa and widely cultivated around the world, it has large, palmate (hand-shaped) leaves that can vary in color from green to reddish-purple, the plant produces distinctive spiky seed pods that contain castor seeds, which are the sources of castor oil

Toxicity of Ricinus

the seeds of ricinus communis plant contain ricin, a highly toxic protein, ricin can be fatal if ingested, inhaled, or injected, even in small amounts, symptoms of ricin poisoning include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain, which can progress to severe dehydration, decreased blood pressure, and organ failure

Uses of Ricinus

despite toxic seeds, castor oil derived from the plant has many uses, including as a laxative, in cosmetics, and as a lubricant

Arsenic

a naturally occurring metalloid found in Earth’s crust, it can exist in several forms: gray (metallic), yellow, and black, with the metallic form being the most common

Arsenic Properties

arsenic is highly toxic and can exist in both organic and inorganic forms, inorganic arsenic compounds, such as arsenic trioxide, are more toxic and are often found in groundwater in certain regions due to natural mineral deposits

Arsenic Uses

historically used in pesticides, herbicides, insecticides, and as a wood preservative, in small amounts, it has been used as medicine, though its toxic effects limit its use

Arsenic Toxicity and Health Risks

arsenic poisoning can occur from inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact with arsenic compounds, symptoms of acute arsenic poisoning include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. chronic exposure can lead to skin changes, cancer, and damage to the nervous system, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes

Mercury Poisoning

typically occurs due to consuming mercury-contaminated fish, exposure from dental fillings, or occupational exposure

Sources of Mercury

fish: particularly tuna, which has high mercury concentrations, dental fillings: amalgam fillings may contain mercury, occupational exposure: jobs involving mercury handling (ex. mining, industrial settings)

Symptoms of Mercury Poisoning

very dependent on the exposure amount, duration, and type of mercury, typical symptoms: weakness, numbness, poor coordination, anxiety, rashes, skin discoloration, poor vision, poor hearing, kidney problems

Risk Groups of Mercury

young children and nursing mothers should monitor fish consumption due to potential mercury exposure

Mercury Onset and Progression

symptoms can take weeks to months to appear, once symptoms appear, they can escalate rapidly, potentially leading to coma or death