Literatuur HC 5 Van Duijne & Ronald (2017) The unraveling of Amsterdam’s unitary rental system

What is a unitary rental market as described in the sources?

n a unitary rental market, the state encourages competition between non/limited-profit (social) and for-profit (private) rental housing1. Households can ideally choose freely between these sectors without compromising on price or quality1. Non-profit providers, especially with a substantial market share and accessible stock, can influence and dampen market rent levels1. Housing policy is typically tenure neutral, and demand for owner-occupied housing is weaker1. The Netherlands has traditionally been considered an iconic 'unitary' rental housing market2.

What is a dualist housing system?

In a dualist housing system, the private market (mainly owner occupation) is considered the primary means to house the population3.... A controlled social rental sector exists, typically small and with strict means-tested access for poor and marginalized households3.... The social sector acts as a 'safety net' or "ambulance service"4. The private rental sector functions along market lines, sheltered from non-profit provision4. This creates a "curious dualism" between the unregulated private market and a tightly controlled state sector4. Owner-occupancy is normally the mainstream tenure

How is the Netherlands described in terms of its historical housing system and recent trends?

The Netherlands has traditionally been considered an iconic 'unitary' rental housing market2.... However, in recent decades, dramatic restructuring has occurred, and it has been suggested that the Netherlands is drifting towards a 'dualist based housing system'2.... Marketization has intensified, especially since the Global Financial Crisis (GFC)

What are the main factors contributing to the unraveling of the unitary market in the Netherlands?

The unitary market has been undermined by changes in the status of housing associations, the privatization of social housing stock, and the promotion of home ownership2.... Market-oriented policies have actively been implemented by governments

Why is Amsterdam a relevant case study for studying dualisation?

Amsterdam is relevant because dualisation appears to have manifested more intensely there9. The city also has a long-established influence of its large social rental sector in sustaining social equality, making it an iconic 'just city'9.... It also represents a dynamic market context interconnected to the global economy

How did Amsterdam's housing tenure structure change between the mid-1990s and 2015?

The share of owner-occupied housing increased significantly from 11% in 1995 to 30% in 20159.... The share of social rental housing declined from 58% in 1995 to 44% in 20159.... The total 'socially regulated rental housing sector' (social + rent-regulated private) accounted for more than two thirds of homes in the mid-1990s

How did the status of housing associations in the Netherlands change, and what were the effects?

Housing associations were quasi-privatized in 1995, becoming independent, non-profit institutions required to support affordable housing13. They became dependent on sales and commercial activities to finance new construction and urban renewal14. This led to a hybrid status between state and commercial organizations14. Later, stricter rules required them to split stock into commercial and social parts14, and new legislation stipulated that 90% of new social allocations must be to households below a specific income limit, introducing a more restrictive, means-tested system

What is the "landlord levy" (Woonakkoord 2014) and how did it impact housing associations and rents?

The Housing Agreement (Woonakkoord) of 2014 introduced a 'landlord levy' imposed on landlords of properties with regulated rents (housing associations), expected to generate significant annual tax revenue (€1.7 billion)15. To help meet this charge, social landlords were allowed to raise rents above inflation rates (up to 6.5%) for households with incomes above the new low-income limit15. This has arguably undermined the rent dampening effect of social housing on private rents and diminishes the housing associations' market position

How did the promotion of home ownership contribute to the unraveling of the unitary system?

The promotion of home ownership since the 1990s has eroded the unitary model7. A national policy goal was set to achieve a 65% home ownership rate by 2010, requiring the conversion of hundreds of thousands of rental units, largely from the social sector16. Discourses framed home ownership as enhancing individual autonomy, social participation, and asset accumulation16. There has been growing political pressure on housing associations to sell dwellings

Was there a "Right to Buy" policy for social housing tenants in the Netherlands similar to the UK?

No, there was no "Right to Buy" policy for sitting tenants17. Instead, there was a "Right to sell" for housing associations, who decided whether to sell to sitting tenants or sell vacant properties17. While not legally forced initially, there was growing political pressure and later state compulsion to sell units, especially since the GFC

How has the geography of social housing sales changed in Amsterdam?

Initially, from 1998 to 2005, most sales of social housing occurred in the outer peripheral areas of the city19. Housing associations were reluctant to sell prized inner-city units19. However, between 2010 and 2014, the approach changed, and sales intensified significantly in inner-city districts

What are the spatial outcomes of dualisation in Amsterdam, particularly regarding social housing stock?

The dualisation process, including sales, has contributed to a marked redistribution of social housing stock10. Over time, the focus of sales shifted from the outskirts to the inner city21. This means the social sector is losing its best quality housing in more attractive areas, and the stock is becoming more concentrated in post-war apartment blocks on the periphery21.... This stimulates urban polarization between inner and outer areas

How have average rent levels in the social and private rental sectors in Amsterdam changed over time?

In 1995, average private sector rents (€277) were comparable to social sector ones (€240)23. This suggested a dampening effect by the social sector and a high degree of competitiveness, characteristic of a unitary market23. However, since then, private sector rents have rapidly increased, especially after 200923. By 2013, the average private sector rent was almost double that of the social sector, showing a marked discrepancy

What are the potential reasons for the increasing divergence in rents between social and private sectors?

One reason is the tightening of mortgage lending criteria after the GFC, pushing households who could no longer buy into the private rental market and increasing demand24. Insecurity in housing and employment markets may have also reinforced renting's attractiveness24. Another factor is increased investment flow into the private sector, including buy-to-let practices24. Also, while social housing is affordable, it is much less accessible due to increasingly longer waiting lists (average 9 years in 2016), undermining its dampening effect on private rents

How have the income profiles of tenants in the social and private rental sectors in Amsterdam diverged?

In 1995, the median real monthly income of private renters (€1684) was only slightly higher than that of social renters (€1531), indicating considerable parity and affordability for low and middle-income households25.... In less than two decades (by 2013), the inflation-adjusted income of private renters increased by 53% (€2573), while that of social renters increased by only 9.6% (€1678)25.... This shows that while private renting has become the domain of middle-income people, social rental housing is increasingly where lower-income households end up

What role does the social housing sector increasingly play in the Netherlands as it moves towards dualism?

With the stock residualized and better-off tenants encouraged to leave, social housing is becoming the de facto tenure for the poor and marginalized22.... It is increasingly reduced to the status of a 'safety net'4.... With increasing concentrations of low-paid and unemployed tenants and declining market share, it is losing its competitive hold

How does the transition from a unitary to a dualist system relate to socioeconomic polarization and segregation?

Dualist systems characteristically deepen inequalities, intensify segregation, marginalization, and socio-economic polarization29.... Unitary models, conversely, can reduce social segregation and prevent the stigmatization of social housing31. The transition to dualism in Amsterdam is contributing to increasing economic polarization and spatial segregation

What is the argument about dualisation being a critical process for understanding urban change?

The authors argue that dualisation itself is a critical process with key outcomes that inform wider debates on spatial and socioeconomic polarization31.... It is often overlooked but is an important lens for understanding contemporary urban and social change32. The unbalancing of private and social housing sectors has distinct spatial outcomes, deepens class differences, and threatens concepts like the 'just city'

What have been some more recent policy developments in Amsterdam (since 2018) regarding social housing?

Since 2018, new local government guidelines have been mooted to dampen escalating housing in-affordability in Amsterdam33. Caps have been put on social housing sales (at a maximum of 1200 per year)33. A minimum amount of social units in Amsterdam has been established (approximately 162,000 units)

How do the Amsterdam findings relate to the broader discussion of housing systems in Europe?

The findings suggest that the Netherlands is moving towards a more neoliberal housing model33. Tentative evidence across Europe suggests that most housing systems have become characteristically market-oriented34. This orientation makes them geared toward dualisation34. For scholars concerned with social justice, the unbalancing of social and private sectors is crucial to understand