Anatomy and Physiology - Chapter 1

Anatomy

Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts and their relationships to one another.

Gross Anatomy

Study of large, easily observable structures such as the heart or bones.

Microscopic Anatomy

Study of body structures that are too small to be seen with the naked eye.

Physiology

Study of how the body and its parts work or function.

Neurophysiology

Explains the workings of the nervous system.

Cardiac Physiology

Studies the function of the heart.

Relationship Between Anatomy and Physiology

Structure determines what functions can take place; parts form a unit where each has a job making the body work as a whole.

Chemical Level

Simplest level where atoms combine to form molecules such as water, sugar, and proteins.

Cells

Microscopic units formed from molecules; smallest units of all living things.

Tissue Level

Groups of similar cells that have a common function; four basic types each with different roles.

Organ

Structure composed of two or more tissue types performing a specific function.

Organ System

Group of organs working together to accomplish a common purpose.

Organismal Level

Highest level of structural organization; sum total of all structural levels working together.

Integumentary System

External covering including skin, hair, and nails; waterproofs, cushions, protects, produces vitamin D, excretes salts, regulates temperature, and senses changes.

Skeletal System

Consists of bones, cartilages, and joints; supports, provides framework, protects, forms blood cells, stores minerals.

Muscular System

Composed of muscles that contract to cause movement; reflects activity of skeletal muscles.

Nervous System

Fast-acting control system; detects and responds to internal/external stimuli via nerve impulses.

Endocrine System

Slow-acting control system using hormones released into the blood to regulate structures.

Cardiovascular System

Heart and blood vessels transport oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and wastes; protects against foreign invaders.

Lymphatic System

Returns leaked fluid to blood; cleanses blood; houses white blood cells for immunity.

Respiratory System

Keeps body supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; includes lungs and airways.

Digestive System

Breaks down food and delivers nutrients to blood; reabsorbs water and removes undigested food as feces.

Urinary System

Removes nitrogen-containing wastes in urine; maintains water/salt balance, acid-base balance, and regulates blood pressure.

Reproductive System

Produces offspring; includes male and female structures for producing and nurturing gametes and fetus.

Maintaining Boundaries

The body maintains an internal environment distinct from the external one; every cell has a membrane allowing selective entry of substances, and the skin protects internal parts from drying, pathogens, and environmental damage.

Movement

Includes activities promoted by muscles like walking and manipulating objects; bones provide leverage; also involves the internal transport of substances like blood, food, and urine via body systems.

Responsiveness

The ability to sense environmental changes and react automatically; includes involuntary actions like pulling away from pain or adjusting breathing due to rising CO₂ levels; involves nerve cells and all body cells to some extent.

Digestion

The process of breaking down food into molecules that can be absorbed into the blood and used by body cells for energy and raw materials.

Metabolism

All chemical reactions in the body, including breaking down and building up substances, and producing ATP using nutrients and oxygen; depends on digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular, and endocrine systems.

Excretion

Removing wastes from the body; involves systems such as digestive (feces), urinary (urine), and integumentary (sweat).

Reproduction

Occurs at cellular or organismal level; involves division for growth or repair and production of offspring via specialized organs and endocrine hormones.

Growth

An increase in size through cell multiplication or enlargement; occurs when building processes exceed destructive ones and is directed by hormones.

Nutrients

Provide energy and materials for cells; include carbohydrates (main fuel), proteins/fats (structure and fuel), and vitamins/minerals (support chemical reactions and oxygen transport).

Oxygen

Required for energy-releasing reactions in cells; provided by respiratory and cardiovascular systems; cells die within minutes without it.

Water

Most abundant substance in the body, making up 60-80% of body weight; vital for chemical processes, secretions, and excretions; obtained from food/drink and lost through evaporation and excretion.

Normal Body Temperature

Must be maintained around 37°C (98.6°F); low temperatures slow or stop metabolic reactions, while high temperatures denature proteins; heat mostly generated by muscle activity.

Atmospheric Pressure

Essential for breathing and gas exchange; low pressure (as at high altitudes) slows exchange, endangering metabolism.

Anatomical Position

Body Orientation The body is erect with the feet parallel and the arms hanging at the sides with the palms facing forward

Directional Terms

Body Orientation Allow medical personnel and anatomists to explain exactly where one body structure is in relation to another

Abdominal

Anterior Body Landmarks Anterior body trunk inferior to ribs

Acromial

Anterior Body Landmarks Point of shoulder

Antebrachial

Anterior Body Landmarks Forearm

Antecubital

Anterior Body Landmarks Anterior surface of elbow

Axillary

Anterior Body Landmarks Armpit

Brachial

Anterior Body Landmarks Arm

Buccal

Anterior Body Landmarks Cheek area

Carpal

Anterior Body Landmarks Wrist

Cervical

Anterior Body Landmarks Neck region

Coxal

Anterior Body Landmarks Hip

Crural

Anterior Body Landmarks Anterior leg; the shin

Deltoid

Anterior Body Landmarks Curve of shoulder formed by large muscle

Digital

Anterior Body Landmarks Fingers, toes

Femoral

Anterior Body Landmarks Thigh (applies to both anterior and posterior)

Fibular

Anterior Body Landmarks Lateral part of leg

Frontal

Anterior Body Landmarks Forehead

Inguinal

Anterior Body Landmarks Area where thigh meets body trunk; groin

Mental

Anterior Body Landmarks Chin

Nasal

Anterior Body Landmarks Nose area

Oral

Anterior Body Landmarks Mouth

Orbital

Anterior Body Landmarks Eye area

Patellar

Anterior Body Landmarks Anterior knee

Pectoral

Anterior Body Landmarks Relating to, or occurring in or on, the chest

Pelvic

Anterior Body Landmarks Area overlying the pelvis anteriorly

Pubic

Anterior Body Landmarks Genital region

Sternal

Anterior Body Landmarks Breastbone area

Tarsal

Anterior Body Landmarks Ankle region

Thoracic

Anterior Body Landmarks Area between the neck and abdomen, supported by the ribs, breastbone and costal cartilages; chest

Umbilical

Anterior Body Landmarks Navel

Calcaneal

Posterior Body Landmarks Heel of foot

Cephalic

Posterior Body Landmarks Head

Femoral

Posterior Body Landmarks Thigh

Gluteal

Posterior Body Landmarks Buttock

Lumbar

Posterior Body Landmarks Area of back between ribs and hips; the loin

Occipital

Posterior Body Landmarks Posterior surface of head or base of skull

Olecranal

Posterior Body Landmarks Posterior surface of elbow

Popliteal

Posterior Body Landmarks Posterior knee area

Sacral

Posterior Body Landmarks Area between hips at base of spine

Scapular

Posterior Body Landmarks Shoulder blade region

Sural

Posterior Body Landmarks Posterior surface of leg; the calf

Vertebral

Posterior Body Landmarks Area of spinal column

Plantar

Posterior Body Landmarks Sole of the foot; illustrated with posterior landmarks

Sagittal Section

Body Planes and Sections Cut along the lengthwise plane dividing the body into right and left parts

Median (Midsagittal) Section

Body Planes and Sections Lengthwise cut down the center into equal right and left parts

Parasagittal Section

Body Planes and Sections All other lengthwise cuts not on the midline

Frontal Section

Body Planes and Sections Cut dividing the body into anterior and posterior parts

Transverse Section

Body Planes and Sections Cut along a horizontal plane dividing the body into superior and inferior parts

Dorsal Body Cavity

Body Cavities Protects organs in the back of the body

Cranial Cavity

Dorsal Body Cavity Space inside the skull; protects the brain

Spinal Cavity

Dorsal Body Cavity Extends from the cranial cavity to the end of the spine; protects the spinal cord

Ventral Body Cavity

Body Cavities Larger cavity containing chest and abdomen structures

Thoracic Cavity

Ventral Body Cavity Separated by the diaphragm; contains lungs, heart; protected by rib cage

Mediastinum

Thoracic Cavity Central region that separates the lungs and houses heart, trachea, and others

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Ventral Body Cavity Located below the diaphragm; contains digestive and reproductive organs

Abdominal Cavity

Abdominopelvic Cavity Superior portion; contains stomach, liver, intestines

Pelvic Cavity

Abdominopelvic Cavity Inferior portion; contains reproductive organs, bladder, rectum

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)

Abdominopelvic Quadrants One of four clinical divisions of abdominopelvic area

Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)

Abdominopelvic Quadrants One of four clinical divisions of abdominopelvic area

Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)

Abdominopelvic Quadrants One of four clinical divisions of abdominopelvic area

Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

Abdominopelvic Quadrants One of four clinical divisions of abdominopelvic area

Umbilical Region

Abdominopelvic Regions Center region; surrounds navel