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What is a theory?

A theory is an explanation of a phenomenon using relational statements (propositions) that connect abstract ideas.

What are theories built on?

Theories are built on real‑world observations (data) and include concepts specifying the units of analysis.

Define micro‑level of explanation.

Micro‑level: individual‑level patterns (within or across individual people or incidents).

Define meso‑level of explanation.

Meso‑level: group‑level patterns (e.g., organizations, industries).

Define macro‑level of explanation.

Macro‑level: large‑scale patterns (e.g., cities, states, nations).

Example of a micro‑level theory of WCC.

Social Learning Theory; Rational Choice Theory; Self‑Control Theory; General Strain Theory; Subcultural Theories.

Example of a meso‑level theory of WCC.

Concentrated Ignorance; Institutional Theory.

Example of a macro‑level theory of WCC.

Resource Scarcity Hypothesis.

Major assumptions of Rational Choice Theory.

People regularly and accurately predict consequences of actions via cost–benefit analysis.

Explanation of crime in Rational Choice Theory.

Crime occurs when perceived benefits outweigh perceived costs.

Potential benefits of WCC (RCT).

Financial gains; lower operating costs; avoiding extra work to maintain compliance.

Potential costs of WCC (RCT).

Arrest, incarceration, probation; fines; job/licensure loss; reputational damage; guilt.

According to RCT, what counts as “opportunity” in WCC?

Job status/position; access to targets or resources necessary to offend.

Define Routine Activities Theory.

Crime occurs when a motivated offender and suitable target converge in the absence of a capable guardian.

Define Techniques of Neutralization.

Cognitive devices that allow offenders to minimize perceived liability and turn costs into benefits.

List Sykes & Matza’s five neutralizations.

Denial of responsibility; Denial of injury; Denial of victim; Condemning the condemner; Appeal to higher loyalties.

Two additional neutralizations in WCC.

“Everyone is doing it” and “Entitlement.”

Denial of responsibility.

“It’s not my fault” or “Someone else made me do it.”

Denial of injury.

“It’s not a big deal” or “No one really got hurt.”

Denial of victim.

“The victim deserved it” or “I took what they owe me.”

Condemning the condemner.

“Look at the hypocrites who judge me.”

Appeal to higher loyalties.

“I did it for the greater good or loyalty.”

“Everyone is doing it.”

“Shouldn’t get in trouble if everyone else does it.”

Entitlement.

“I did good things too—focus only on the bad is unfair.”

Prevention strategies (RCT).

Increase costs (swift, certain, severe punishments); reduce benefits (better pay); minimize opportunity; discourage neutralizations.

Limitations of RCT.

Doesn’t explain spontaneous crimes; perceived ≠ actual risks; ignores emotions.

Major assumptions of Social Learning Theory.

Crime is learned and reinforced through social interactions.

Explanation of crime in SLT/DAT.

Offenders act when definitions favorable to crime outweigh unfavorable ones.

How does Akers expand on Sutherland’s DAT?

Adds imitation and differential reinforcement (operant conditioning).

Positive reinforcement (SLT).

Adding desirable stimuli (money, status) to encourage behavior.

Negative reinforcement (SLT).

Removing undesirable stimuli (canceling meetings) to encourage behavior.

Positive punishment (SLT).

Applying unfavorable stimuli (fines, arrest) to discourage behavior.

Negative punishment (SLT).

Removing desirable stimuli (privileges) to discourage behavior.

Prevention strategies (SLT).

Promote integrity culture; increase supervision; punish misconduct + reward compliance.

Limitations of SLT.

Overemphasizes external forces; ignores unmodeled behavior; downplays personal motivations.

Define self‑control.

The extent to which someone can resist temptations to commit crime.

Assumptions of Self‑Control Theory.

Self‑control is set early in life, stable, and shaped by parenting.

Explanation of crime in SCT.

Low self‑control individuals commit crime because they can’t resist temptations.

Characteristics of low self‑control.

Impulsivity; risk‑taking; short‑sightedness; insensitivity; preference for physical activities.

How SCT explains WCC.

White‑collar offenders lack self‑control like street offenders.

Limitations of SCT.

Doesn’t explain planned WCCs; offender traits often contradict low self‑control profile.

Assumptions of Strain Theory.

People experience stressors (strain) impacting emotions and behaviors.

Define strain.

Psychological stressors that increase likelihood of crime (anger, frustration).

Three sources of strain.

Failure to achieve goals; loss of valued stimuli; presentation of negative stimuli.

Strain examples for WCC.

Low wages; lack of advancement; toxic culture; fear of failure.

How crime copes with strain.

Escaping strain; seeking revenge; alleviating negative emotions.

Prevention strategies (GST).

Minimize strain (improve pay, conditions); teach healthy coping.

Limitations of GST.

Doesn’t explain offenders without strain; measures of strain can be vague.

Assumptions of Subcultural Theories.

Behavior shaped by norms passed down through social groups.

Subcultural norms in WCC.

Cutting corners; ignoring misconduct; cover‑ups.

Prevention strategies (Subcultural).

Address deviant norms immediately; reinforce positive norms; incentivize compliance.

Limitations of Subcultural.

Highly context‑specific; focused historically on violent crime.

Corporate vs. Occupational Crime.

Corporate: promotes corporate goals; Occupational: benefits individual at company’s expense.

Define Concerted Ignorance.

Ignoring known/suspected misconduct to protect self or company.

When does Concerted Ignorance occur?

Under pressure to meet goals; unclear reporting; socialized to ignore misconduct.

Prevention (Concerted Ignorance).

Increase supervision; establish clear reporting; encourage accountability.

Define Institutional Theory.

Organizations use shared norms/processes for stability and identity.

How Institutional Theory explains WCC.

When org culture pressures subordinates to follow unethical directives.

Prevention (Institutional).

Increase external oversight; clarify legal boundaries; reduce top‑down pressure.

Limitations of Institutional.

Doesn’t explain crimes in well‑regulated or transparent orgs.

Define Resource Scarcity Hypothesis.

Limited critical resources lead organizations to commit crimes to solve scarcity.

Example of scarcity‑driven WCC.

Price‑fixing among competitors to avoid competition.

Prevention (Resource Scarcity).

Promote equitable access; monitor industry trends; develop alternatives.

Define Integrated Theory.

Combines two or more existing theories into a single, reformulated model.

Why integrate theories?

Provides more comprehensive explanations; increases explanatory power.

Integration methods.

Sequential (causal order); Parallel (side‑by‑side); Deductive (broad↔specific).

Coleman’s (1987) Integrated Theory.

WCCs occur when motivation meets opportunity (cultures of competition, desire for wealth, fear of failure).

What influences opportunity (Coleman)?

Perceived risks/rewards; belief compatibility; relative attractiveness.

Finney & Lesieur’s Contingency Theory.

WCC stems from variation in decision processes influenced by internal/external controls.

Braithwaite’s (1989) Integrated Theory.

WCC when orgs can’t achieve goals and subcultural norms promote crime.

Rorie’s (2015) Integrated Theory.

WCC happens when managers find it more beneficial to violate regulations than follow them.

Define Parallel Integration.

Combines specific theories side‑by‑side into one framework for broader phenomena.

Define Traditional Life‑Course Theory.

Criminal propensity peaks in adolescence then declines; applied to WCC via situational, trigger, and org factors.

Define Deductive Integration.

Combines elements across levels: specific→broad or two broad→new theory.

Gottschalk’s (2017) Convenience Theory.

Combines economic (macro), organizational (meso), behavioral (micro) factors via deductive reasoning.