Key Concepts in Psychology and Gender Studies

Androgyny

Androgyny refers to the presence of both masculine and feminine characteristics in the same individual. It can relate to gender identity, gender expression, or both.

Anna O.

Anna O. was a patient of Josef Breuer, not Sigmund Freud, and is considered to be one of the most well known cases in the history of psychology. Freud never met Anna O., but learned of her case through his work with Breuer, later attributing her condition to hysteria.

Freud's Oral Stage

Oral Stage (0-18 months): Focus on oral gratification (sucking, biting).

Freud's Anal Stage

Anal Stage (18-36 months): Focus on bowel and bladder control.

Freud's Phallic Stage

Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Focus on genitals; Oedipus complex.

Freud's Latency Stage

Latency Stage (6-puberty): Sexual urges are dormant.

Freud's Genital Stage

Genital Stage (puberty onward): Mature sexual interests develop.

Evolutionary Psychology

Evolutionary psychology suggests that men may have evolved a preference for multiple sexual partners to increase the likelihood of passing on their genes. This is because, biologically, men have a lower parental investment than women and can potentially reproduce more frequently.

Criticism of Evolutionary Psychology

A major criticism of evolutionary psychology is that it can be difficult to test its hypotheses empirically. Critics argue that it often relies on post-hoc explanations that are difficult to falsify.

Eagly's Social-Role Theory

Eagly's social-role theory proposes that gender differences arise from the different social roles that men and women occupy. These roles create gendered expectations and behaviors.

Social-Cognitive Theory of Gender

The social-cognitive theory of gender emphasizes that children learn about gender through observation, imitation, reinforcement, and punishment. Their understanding of gender is shaped by their interactions with the world around them.

Gender Intensification Hypothesis

The gender intensification hypothesis suggests that psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence because of increased socialization pressures to conform to traditional gender roles.

Carol Gilligan's Objection to Kohlberg's Theory

The most publicized criticism of Kohlberg's theory has come from Carol Gilligan, who argues that Kohlberg's theory reflects a gender bias. Kohlberg's theory is based on a male norm that puts abstract principles above relationships and takes a justice perspective toward morality. Gilligan argues for a care perspective, which views people in terms of their connectedness and concern for others.

Gender-Schema Theory

Gender-schema theory proposes that children develop mental schemas about what is appropriate for males and females in their culture. These schemas then influence how they perceive, interpret, and remember information.

Ability Test Where Boys Outperform Girls

Boys tend to outperform girls on tests of spatial reasoning, particularly those involving mental rotation.

Ability Test Where Girls Outperform Boys

Girls tend to outperform boys on tests of verbal ability, such as reading comprehension and writing.

Malala Yousafzai's Contribution

Malala Yousafzai is particularly well-known for her advocacy for girls' education and human rights, especially in the Swat Valley in Pakistan.

Carlos Danger's Real Name

Carlos Danger was a pseudonym used by politician Anthony Weiner.

Trend in Adolescent Sexual Activity Since 1991

Down. Adolescent sexual activity has generally decreased since 1991 in the United States.

Sexual Script

A sexual script is a culturally influenced set of expectations about how individuals should behave in sexual situations.

Two Elements of a Typical Sexual Script in the US

Two elements of a typical sexual script in the US might include: Men are expected to initiate sexual activity. Women are expected to control the level of sexual intimacy.

Sexual Minority Groups

Individuals who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT), as well as those who are asexual, pansexual, or have other non-heterosexual orientations or gender identities.

Critical-Period Hypothesis

A theory suggesting that there is a specific time frame during development when exposure to certain factors can influence a person's sexual orientation.

Pansexual

Being attracted to individuals regardless of their gender identity or biological sex.

Daryl Bem's Theory of Sexuality

A theory suggesting that biological factors influence childhood temperament, which then affects children's preferences for activities and peers, leading to sexual attraction to individuals who are different or 'exotic.'

How Many Children in My Set of Triplets

You have three children in your set of triplets.

Three Examples of Sexual Harassment

1. Unwelcome sexual advances. 2. Requests for sexual favors. 3. Verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature that creates a hostile work or school environment.

Two Reasons Teen Pregnancy is High-Risk

1. Increased risk of pregnancy-related complications, such as preterm labor and delivery. 2. Higher likelihood of dropping out of school, which can limit future educational and economic opportunities.

Region of the US with the Highest Teen Birth Rate

The teen birth rate is typically highest in the Southern United States.

Three Attributes of Toxic Parenting

1. Consistent criticism and belittling of the child. 2. Lack of empathy and emotional support. 3. Using the child to meet the parent's own emotional needs.

Three Ways to Reduce Teen Pregnancy

1. Comprehensive sex education. 2. Increased access to contraception. 3. Supportive and open communication between parents and teens.

Two Examples of STIs with No Cures

1. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) 2. Herpes (Herpes Simplex Virus)

Three Symptoms of HIV Infection

1. Fever 2. Fatigue 3. Swollen lymph nodes

Virus That Causes HIV

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is the virus that causes HIV infection.

One Definition of Sexual Misconduct in NY State

One definition of sexual misconduct in NY State could be nonconsensual sexual contact.

Three Moral Foundations in Jonathan Haidt's Theory

Haidt's Theory of Moral Foundations includes: Care: cherishing and protecting others; opposite of harm. Fairness or proportionality: rendering justice according to shared rules; opposite of cheating. Loyalty or ingroup: standing with your group, family, nation; opposite of betrayal. Authority or respect: submitting to tradition and legitimate authority; opposite of subversion. Sanctity or purity: abhorrence for disgusting things, foods, actions; opposite of degradation.

Moral Foundations Liberals Hold More Than Conservatives

According to Haidt, liberals consistently showed greater endorsement and use of the Harm/care and Fairness/reciprocity foundations compared to the other 3 foundations while conservatives endorsed and used the 5 foundations more equally.

Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

Intermittent Reinforcement

Intermittent reinforcement is when a behavior is reinforced only some of the time.

Fixed-Interval Reinforcement

Fixed-interval reinforcement is when reinforcement is given after a specific amount of time has passed.

Observational Learning (Bandura)

According to Bandura, observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others.

Negative Punishment

Negative punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Freud's Ego Ideal

According to Freud, the ego ideal is the part of the superego that contains the standards for moral and ideal behaviors.

Three Elements of the Dark Triad

The three elements of the dark triad are: 1. Narcissism 2.

Ego Ideal

According to Freud, the ego ideal is the part of the superego that contains the standards for moral and ideal behaviors.

Dark Triad

The three elements of the dark triad are: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, Psychopathy.

Characteristics of Narcissistic Individuals

Three characteristics of narcissistic individuals are: A grandiose sense of self-importance, A need for excessive admiration, A lack of empathy.

Sympathy vs. Empathy

Sympathy is feeling pity or sorrow for someone else's misfortune, while empathy is understanding and sharing the feelings of another person.

Roald Dahl's Reputation

Roald Dahl's reputation has come into question by some people due to accusations of antisemitism and racism in his writings and personal life.

Social Domain Theory

Moral development involves changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong. Moral development has an intrapersonal (within-person) dimension and an interpersonal (between-person) dimension.

Milgram Experiment

The main finding of the Milgram experiment was that people are surprisingly likely to obey authority figures, even when it means harming others.

Hidden Curriculum

The hidden curriculum of a school refers to the unwritten, unofficial, and often unintended lessons, values, and perspectives that students learn in school.

Exosystem

The exosystem in Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory refers to the settings that the individual does not actively participate in but that still affect their experiences.

Reciprocal Socialization

Reciprocal socialization is the process by which children and adolescents socialize parents, just as parents socialize them.

Baumrind's Four Kinds of Parenting

The four kinds of parenting are: Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, Uninvolved.

Emotional Autonomy

Emotional autonomy refers to the capacity to function independently without excessive needs for approval or reassurance from others.

Insecure Attachment to Parents

A symptom of insecure attachment to parents could be excessive clinginess or difficulty separating from parents.

Four Specific Kinds of Attachment

The four specific kinds of attachment are: Secure, Anxious-preoccupied, Dismissive-avoidant, Fearful-avoidant.

Single-Parent Families

The United States has one of the highest rates of single-parent families among developed countries.

Maladaptive Behavior of Divorced Parent

An example of a highly maladaptive behavior of a divorced parent toward one of their children is badmouthing the other parent to the child.

Sternberg's Theory of Ethical Reasoning

Three steps in Sternberg's theory of ethical reasoning are: recognize that there is an event to which to react; define the event as having an ethical dimension; decide that the ethical dimension is of sufficient significance to merit an ethics-guided response.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

The three main stages of Kohlberg's theory of moral development are: Preconventional reasoning, Conventional reasoning, Postconventional reasoning.

Travel Story

Views love as a shared journey or adventure. Emphasizes exploration, discovery, and personal growth. Values the experiences encountered together over reaching a specific destination.

Gardening Story

Compares love to nurturing a garden. Highlights the importance of care, patience, and consistent effort. Focuses on fostering a relationship that grows and flourishes over time.

Business Story

Frames love as a strategic partnership. Centers on practicality, mutual benefits, and achieving shared goals. Assesses the relationship based on contributions and collaborative success.

Preventing STD Transmission

The single best way to prevent transmission of an STD (other than not having sex) is the consistent and correct use of condoms.

Attachment Style in Childhood and Adulthood

Attachment styles developed in childhood can influence the quality and nature of romantic relationships in adulthood.

Sternberg-Barnes Study

The study (Sternberg-Barnes) on ideals in romantic relationships showed that the convergence of ideals between partners was the best predictor of relationship satisfaction.