Psych 2

What cognitive changes occur during adolescence?

Increased ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically.

What is Piaget's theory regarding adolescents?

Adolescents enter the Formal Operational Stage, where they can think abstractly about hypothetical situations.

What is egocentrism in the context of adolescent thinking?

An adolescent’s belief that they are the center of attention and that others are focused on them more than they actually are.

What does Vygotsky's theory emphasize?

The role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development.

What are the four stages of Piaget's cognitive development?

1. Sensorimotor, 2. Preoperational, 3. Concrete operational, 4. Formal operational.

What characterizes the Formal Operational Stage?

The ability to think logically about abstract and hypothetical situations.

What is hypothetical-deductive reasoning?

A method of problem-solving in which adolescents generate hypotheses and systematically test them.

What is the Pendulum Task studies by Inhelder & Piaget?

A task that explores how adolescents isolate variables to determine the factors affecting the swing of a pendulum.

What is propositional thought?

The ability to evaluate the logic of statements without real-world reference.

How does deductive reasoning differ from inductive reasoning?

Deductive reasoning moves from general principles to specific conclusions, while inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to general conclusions.

What is the 'third eye task' used for?

To assess children's ability to think about hypothetical situations and provide imaginative answers.

What is continuous reinforcement?

A reinforcement schedule where behavior is rewarded every time it occurs.

What is partial reinforcement?

A reinforcement schedule where behavior is rewarded intermittently.

What is the fixed interval schedule in reinforcement?

Reinforcing behavior after a predetermined duration since the last reward.

What happens in a variable interval schedule?

Reinforcement occurs after varying and unpredictable amounts of time.

What is fixed ratio schedule?

Reinforcement given after a specific number of occurrences of a behavior.

What is the behavior extinction effect in reinforcement?

Behaviors are more resilient under partial reinforcement than continuous reinforcement.

What are the four stages of observational learning?

1. Attention, 2. Retention, 3. Initiation, 4. Motivation.

What does base-rate neglect refer to?

Ignoring the overall frequency of a behavior when making judgements.

What is intuitive thought based on?

Heuristics, or general rules of thumb, rather than logical reasoning.

What is the availability heuristic?

Making judgments based on how easily information comes to mind.

What are the components of adolescent egocentrism?

Reflection on one's thoughts and the belief that others are highly attentive to one's behavior.

What is the spotlight effect?

The belief that others notice one’s appearance and behavior more than they actually do.

What is self-concept?

Our perceptions and beliefs about ourselves.

How does self-efficacy differ from self-esteem?

Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to perform specific tasks, while self-esteem concerns overall self-worth.

What is the looking-glass self?

The idea that we form self-perceptions based on how others view us.

What is the self-discrepancy theory?

The concept that our self-esteem is influenced by the gap between our actual self, ideal self, and ought self.

What is fixed mindset?

The belief that abilities are static and cannot be developed.

What is growth mindset?

The belief that abilities can improve through effort and learning.

What is self-esteem?

The extent to which we value ourselves, influenced by self-concept and external perceptions.

How can high self-esteem impact adolescents?

Associated with positive relationships, confidence, and resilience.

What is a fragile high self-esteem?

An unstable form of self-esteem that leads to defensiveness and avoidance of failure.

What is the difference between sex and gender?

Sex refers to biological characteristics, while gender relates to social roles and expectations.

What is gender identity?

How individuals perceive their own gender, which can vary in labels such as cisgender and nonbinary.

What are gender stereotypes?

Overgeneralizations about characteristics and behaviors typical of each gender.

What are societal standards of gender roles?

Expectations of how men and women should behave based on societal norms.

What is gender intensification?

The increased adherence to traditional gender roles during adolescence.

How do parents typically socialize children into gender roles?

Through reinforcement of appropriate behaviors and discouragement of inappropriate ones.

What is the 'Man Box'?

A set of societal norms dictating expected behaviors for men, such as emotional suppression and power.

What is the impact of evolutionary theory on gender roles?

It suggests that men and women faced different evolutionary pressures, which shaped traits and behaviors.

How do children develop their gender identity?

By adopting labels and understanding stereotypes around ages 2-3 and solidifying them by ages 5-7.

How can self-esteem fluctuate during adolescence?

Adolescents may experience lower self-esteem upon entering middle school due to social comparisons.

What is relational self-esteem?

Self-esteem influenced by relationships with significant others.

How do societal expectations affect gender role behavior over time?

Society reinforces or challenges traditional gender roles through various socialization processes.