Unit 0 Science Practices Terms

A complete set of vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts for Unit 0 Science Practices.

Cultural norms

Shared rules, expectations, and behavioral standards accepted by a specific group or society.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information in a way that confirms preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after an outcome has occurred, that one would have foreseen or predicted it.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's own knowledge, judgments, or abilities.

Independent variables

The factor in an experiment that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter to test its effects.

Confounding variables

Extraneous factors other than the independent variable that can unintentionally influence the dependent variable.

Dependent variables

The factor that is measured in an experiment to observe changes caused by the independent variable.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize baseline differences between groups.

Case study

An in-depth, detailed examination of a single individual, group, or situation over time.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two variables change together and predict each other.

Positive Correlation

A relationship between two variables where both increase or decrease together in the same direction.

Negative Correlation

A relationship between two variables where an increase in one corresponds to a decrease in the other.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines and analyzes the results of multiple independent scientific studies.

Naturalistic observation

A research method that involves observing subjects in their natural environment without intervention or manipulation.

Hypothesis

A testable, specific prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Falsifiable (as it pertains to hypotheses)

The requirement that a hypothesis must be capable of being proven false through empirical evidence or testing.

Operational definitions

Clear, exact descriptions of procedures and measurements used to define specific variables in a study.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study with different participants or situations to confirm initial findings.

Central tendency

Single values, such as the mean, median, or mode, that describe the middle or central point of a data set.

Variation

How much individual data points spread out or differ from one another and from the mean in a distribution.

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a given score.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, calculated by dividing the sum of all scores by the total number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution when all data points are arranged in numerical order.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score or value in a dataset.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution where most scores cluster around the mean and taper off symmetrically at both ends.

Positive skew

A distribution where most scores cluster at the lower end, with a tail extending toward higher values.

Negative skew

A distribution where most scores cluster at the higher end, with a tail extending toward lower values.

Bimodal distribution

A statistical distribution that contains two distinct, frequently occurring modes or peaks.

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score of a distribution.

Regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back toward their average on subsequent testing.

Sample

A subset of individuals chosen from a larger target population to participate in a study.

Population

The entire group of individuals from which samples may be drawn and about whom conclusions are made.

Representative sample

A sample that accurately reflects the key demographic and characteristic traits of the population as a whole.

Random sampling

A sampling technique where every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Convenience sampling

Selecting participants who are easily accessible or readily available to the researcher.

Generalizing

Applying results obtained from a study sample to the broader population.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment exposed to the independent variable being tested.

Control group

The baseline group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment, used for comparison.

Placebo

An inactive or inert substance or condition given to control participants in place of an active treatment.

Placebo effect

Experimental results caused by participant expectations alone rather than the physical properties of a treatment.

Single-blind study

A study in which participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-blind study

An experimental procedure where both participants and research staff are unaware of who received the treatment or placebo.

Experimenter bias

Unintentional actions or expectations by researchers that influence study outcomes or subject behaviors.

Social desirability bias

The tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner intended to be viewed favorably by others.

Qualitative research/measures

Research methods focused on non-numerical, descriptive data such as words, narratives, and observational descriptions.

Structured interviews

Interview methods where every participant is asked the exact same standardized questions in the exact same order.

Quantitative research/measures

Research methods relying on numerical data, mathematical models, and statistical analysis.

Likert scales

Survey scales asking respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with statements along a continuum.

Representation of participants

The degree to which study participants accurately mirror the demographic characteristics of the broader target population.

Peer review

Evaluation of scientific research by independent experts in the same field before it is published.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots representing the relationship and correlation between two quantitative variables.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical index ($r$) ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ that measures the strength and direction of a relationship.

Effect sizes

Quantitative measures of the magnitude or strength of an experimental outcome or relationship between variables.

Statistical significance

A statistical calculation indicating the likelihood that an experimental result occurred by chance rather than real effects.

Directionality problem (in correlation)

The inability to determine which variable causes changes in the other when two variables are correlated.

Third variable problem (in correlation)

The possibility that an unmeasured outside variable causes the observed relationship between two correlated variables.

Institutional review

Ethical evaluation conducted by a committee (IRB) to ensure research protocols protect human and animal subjects.

Informed consent

An ethical requirement that participants be informed of study details so they can voluntarily agree to participate.

Protection from harm

An ethical principle requiring researchers to keep participants safe from physical, emotional, and psychological injury.

Confidentiality

An ethical standard ensuring that personal details and participant responses remain private and undisclosed.

Deception

Misleading participants about the true purpose or procedures of a study, permissible only when necessary and paired with debriefing.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study's purpose, hypotheses, and any used deceptions given to participants.

Validity

The extent to which a test or research measurement accurately measures or predicts what it intends to measure.

Content

The extent to which a test samples the behavior or domain of interest (Content validity).

Construct

The degree to which a test accurately measures a specific theoretical non-observable trait or concept (Construct validity).

Face

The extent to which a test appears on the surface to measure what it claims to measure (Face validity).

Predictive

The success with which a test predicts future performance or outcomes on a criterion measure (Predictive validity).

Criterion

The degree to which a test score correlates with an established external standard or metric (Criterion validity).