Chap 12

Acrobat problem

A problem involving acrobats that is similar to the Tower of Hanoi problem. Used to illustrate how the way a problem is stated can influence its difficulty. See also Reverse acrobat problem.

Analogical encoding

A technique in which people compare two problems that illustrate a principle. This technique is designed to help people discover similar structural features of cases or problems.

Analogical paradox

Participants in psychological experiments tend to focus on surface features in analogy problems, whereas people in the real world frequently use deeper, more structural features.

Analogical problem solving

The use of analogies as an aid to solving problems. Typically, a solution to one problem, the source problem, is presented that is analogous to the solution to another problem, the target problem.

Analogical transfer

The application of problem-solving strategies experienced in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem.

Analogy

Making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things.

Candle problem

A problem, first described by Duncker, in which a person is given a number of objects and is given the task of mounting a candle on a wall so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor. This problem was used to study functional fixedness.

Convergent thinking

Thinking that works toward finding a solution to a specific problem that usually has a correct answer. Can be contrasted with Divergent thinking.

Creative cognition

A technique developed by Finke to train people to think creatively.

Design fixation

Presenting a sample design influences the creation of new designs.

Divergent thinking

Thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential solutions. Can be contrasted with Convergent thinking.

Expert

Person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, has become acknowledged as being extremely skilled or knowledgeable in that field.

Fixation

In problem solving, people's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution. See also Design fixation; Functional fixedness.

Functional fixedness

An effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object's function inhibit the person's ability to use the object for a different function. See also Fixation (in problem solving).

Goal state

In problem solving, the condition at the end of a problem.

Ill-defined problem

A problem in which it is difficult to specify a clear goal state or specific operators. Many real-life problems are ill-defined problems.

In vivo problem-solving research

Observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations. This technique has been used to study the use of analogy in a number of different settings, including laboratory meetings of a university research group and design brainstorming sessions in an industrial research and development department.

Initial state

In problem solving, the conditions at the beginning of a problem.

Insight

Sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Intermediate states

In problem solving, the various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states.

Means-end analysis

A problem-solving strategy that seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states. This is achieved by creating subgoals, intermediate states that are closer to the goal.

Mental set

A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determined by a person's experience or what has worked in the past.

Mental simulation

Models that people create about what will happen following different decisions.

Mutilated checkerboard problem

A problem that has been used to study how the statement of a problem influences a person's ability to reach a solution.

Operators

In problem solving, permissible moves that can be made toward a problem's solution.

Problem

A situation in which there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal state and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle.

Problem space

The initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem.

Radiation problem

A problem posed by Duncker that involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation without damaging other organs in the body. This problem has been widely used to study the role of analogy in problem solving.

Restructuring

The process of changing a problem's representation. According to the Gestalt psychologists, restructuring is the key mechanism of problem solving.

Reverse acrobat problem

A modification of the acrobat problem that is used to show how the way a problem is stated can influence its difficulty.

Source problem (or story)

A problem or story that is analogous to the target problem and which therefore provides information that can lead to a solution to the target problem. See also Target problem.

Structural features (problems)

The underlying principle of a problem. For example, in the radiation problem, needing high intensity to fix something surrounded by material that could be damaged by high intensity. Contrast with Surface features.

Subgoals

In the means-end analysis approach to problem solving, intermediate states that move the process of solution closer to the goal.

Surface features

Specific elements that make up a problem. For example, in the radiation problem, the rays and the tumor are surface features. Contrast with Structural features.

Target problem

A problem to be solved. In analogical problem solving, solution of this problem can become easier when the problem-solver is exposed to an analogous source problem or story. See also Source problem.

Think-aloud protocol

A procedure in which participants are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while doing a problem. This procedure is used to help determine people's thought processes as they are solving a problem.

Tower of Hanoi problem

A problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another. It has been used to illustrate the process involved in means-end analysis.

Two-string problem

A problem first described by Maier in which a person is given the task of attaching two strings together that are too far apart to be reached at the same time. This task was devised to illustrate the operation of functional fixedness.

Water-jug problem

A problem, first described by Luchins, that illustrates how mental set can influence the strategies that people use to solve a problem.

Well-defined problem

A problem that has a correct answer. There are usually procedures that, when applied correctly, will lead to a solution. See also Ill-defined problem.