African American History: Movements and Cultural Impact

What movements emerged in the early to mid-20th century that affirmed African heritage and cultural aesthetics?

The Negritude and Negrismo movements.

What was the primary influence on the Negritude and Negrismo movements?

The New Negro movement in the U.S.

What did the Negritude movement emphasize?

Cultural pride and political liberation of Black people.

What time period did the Negritude movement span?

1930s to 1950s.

What does 'Negritude' mean in French?

'Blackness'.

What was the focus of the Negrismo movement?

Celebrating African contributions in Latin American music, folklore, literature, and art.

How did African Americans relate to the Negritude and Negrismo movements?

They saw connections between these movements and their own critique of global capitalism and racism.

Who was Jessie Redmon Fauset?

An editor of the NAACP journal The Crisis who condemned racism and colonialism.

What does the Black Freedom Movement encompass?

A period of transnational activism from the mid-1940s to the 1970s.

What were the two significant movements within the Black Freedom Movement?

The Civil Rights movement and the Black Power movement.

What did the Civil Rights movement achieve?

It annulled Jim Crow laws and practices.

What was the purpose of African American visits to Africa in the 1950s and 1960s?

To express diasporic solidarity and support for Africa's decolonization.

What inspired African American activists to visit Ghana in 1957?

Ghana's independence from British colonial rule.

Which prominent figures visited Ghana following its independence?

Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, Maya Angelou, Pauli Murray, and W.E.B. Du Bois.

What was Joe Louis's role in promoting Cuba to African Americans in 1960?

He traveled with a delegation to discuss promoting Cuba as a tourist destination.

How did diasporic solidarity impact the Black Freedom movement?

It bolstered the global reach of the movement to audiences beyond the U.S.

What was the significance of the year 1960 in relation to African nations?

It was known as the 'Year of Africa,' during which 17 African nations declared their independence.

What ongoing impact does diasporic solidarity have?

It continues to bring international attention to Africa's decolonization movement.

What shared struggles did African Americans and Africans acknowledge?

Their struggles against anti-Black racism and oppression.

What was a key outcome of the Black Freedom Movement in the U.S. during the mid-20th century?

The inclusion of both the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power movement.

What movement acknowledged shared struggles against anti-Black racism and oppression?

Pan-Africanism and Diasporic Solidarity.

How did Diasporic Solidarity develop during the decolonization period?

It grew between Black Freedom leaders and African countries undergoing decolonization.

What was the status of the United States Armed Forces at the beginning of World War II?

The U.S. Armed Forces remained segregated.

How many African Americans registered for the draft or enlisted in the military during WWII?

Over two million African Americans.

Who were the Tuskegee Airmen?

The first African American pilots in the United States military, serving in the U.S. Army Air Corps.

What was the significance of the Tuskegee Airmen during WWII?

They contributed to the fight against fascism in Europe and North Africa.

What was the Double Victory Campaign?

A campaign urging African Americans to fight for victory against fascism abroad and against Jim Crow segregation at home.

Who inspired the Double Victory Campaign and how?

James G. Thompson inspired it with a letter to the Pittsburgh Courier in 1942.

What was the purpose of the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 (G.I. Bill)?

To provide funds for college tuition, low-cost home mortgages, and low-interest business startup loans for returning veterans.

How many Black veterans benefited from the G.I. Bill?

1.2 million Black veterans.

What issue affected the distribution of G.I. Bill benefits to Black veterans?

Local administration of funds led to Jim Crow discrimination practices, resulting in disproportionate benefits for white veterans.

What were the conditions faced by African Americans through the mid-20th century?

They faced racial discrimination, violence, and segregation in various areas including education, housing, transportation, and voting.

What landmark Supreme Court case ruled racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional?

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954).

What did the Supreme Court determine in the Brown v. Board of Education decision?

That state-sanctioned school segregation violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

What prior ruling was overturned by Brown v. Board of Education?

The ruling of 'separate but equal' established in Plessy v. Ferguson.

What key evidence did the Supreme Court cite in its decision for Brown v. Board of Education?

The 'doll test' conducted by psychologists Mamie and Kenneth Clark, which showed the impact of segregation on children's self-esteem.

What resistance occurred following the Brown v. Board of Education ruling?

De facto segregation persisted, with some states cutting funding for integrated schools while supporting predominantly white schools.

What inspired the Civil Rights mobilization during WWII?

Continued discrimination at home and the Double V Campaign.

What was the aim of the Civil Rights movement emerging in the mid-20th century?

To eradicate segregation and ensure federal protection of rights guaranteed by the Reconstruction Amendments and the Civil Rights Act of 1875.

What was the impact of white families fleeing to the suburbs and private schools during the civil rights movement?

It shifted their investment into schools and neighborhoods that few African Americans could access.

What was the significance of the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education?

It made segregation in schools unconstitutional and overturned Plessy v. Ferguson.

Who were the 'Little Rock Nine'?

A group of nine African American students who attempted to integrate Little Rock High School in Arkansas in 1957.

What findings influenced the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education?

The Court considered the findings from the 'doll test' conducted by Mamie and Kenneth Clark.

What forms of resistance to desegregation were observed after Brown v. Board?

Resistance included white flight, violence, cutting funds, and using police to stop desegregation.

What was the outcome of Alexander v. Holmes?

It accelerated the pace of desegregation in schools.

How did housing discrimination limit African Americans in the 20th century?

It restricted their access to home ownership, limiting their ability to pass on wealth to descendants.

What role did the Federal Housing Administration play in housing segregation?

It codified housing segregation in its Underwriting Manual, making it illegal for African Americans to live in many communities.

What is redlining?

A discriminatory practice where mortgage lenders withheld loans from African Americans and other people of color based on perceived financial risks.

What was a consequence of housing discrimination on African American communities?

It intensified pre-existing disparities in access to public transportation, clean water, healthcare, and other services.

How did African Americans respond to inadequate public transportation in segregated areas?

They operated jitneys and started their own bus companies.

What were the 'Big Four' civil rights organizations?

The NAACP, SCLC, CORE, and SNCC, which united African Americans to end racial discrimination.

What methods did major civil rights organizations use to promote their cause?

They employed nonviolent, direct, and racially inclusive protest and grassroots efforts.

What was the Fair Housing Act of 1968?

Legislation aimed at combating housing discrimination and promoting fair housing practices.

What was the effect of housing discrimination on wealth accumulation for African Americans?

It prevented them from passing on wealth to future generations.

What was the role of the NAACP in the civil rights movement?

It fought against racial discrimination and worked towards legal equality for African Americans.

What challenges did African Americans face when integrating into predominantly white neighborhoods?

They often became targets of mob violence.

What was the impact of segregation on health disparities among African Americans?

It exacerbated health disparities due to limited access to healthcare and healthy resources.

What were the consequences of the lack of infrastructure in predominantly Black areas?

It resulted in limited access to essential services like transportation, clean water, and healthcare.

How did local branches of civil rights organizations contribute to the movement?

They launched a national movement through grassroots efforts and local protests.

What was the significance of the 'doll test' in the context of Brown v. Board?

It demonstrated the psychological effects of segregation on African American children, influencing the Court's decision.

What was the response of African Americans to the challenges posed by segregation and discrimination?

They organized protests, formed their own services, and fought for civil rights through various organizations.

What was the relationship between housing discrimination and public health for African Americans?

Housing discrimination led to poorer living conditions, which negatively impacted public health outcomes.

What are some nonviolent forms of civil disobedience?

Marches, sit-ins, litigation, economic boycotts, and the use of mass media.

What was the Birmingham Children's Crusade and why was it significant?

Organized in 1963, it included children to avoid penalties like job loss. The violent police response against children was televised, shocking many Americans and people worldwide.

Who organized the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom?

A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin, and an alliance of Black civil rights organizations and leaders from religious and labor groups.

What issues were highlighted during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom?

Economic inequality, unemployment, and racial discrimination.

What famous speech did Martin Luther King Jr. deliver during the March on Washington?

The 'I Have a Dream' speech.

What was the purpose of the Mississippi Freedom Summer project in 1964?

To highlight racial violence faced by African Americans asserting their right to vote and to establish Freedom Schools for civic activism.

What tragic event galvanized the Civil Rights Movement during the Mississippi Freedom Summer?

The killing of three young activists: one African American and two Jewish.

What did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 accomplish?

It ended segregation and prohibited discrimination based on race, color, and religion.

What was the significance of the Voting Rights Act of 1965?

It outlawed discriminatory barriers in voting.

What were the 'Big Four' Civil Rights Organizations?

NAACP, SCLC, SNCC, and CORE.

What strategies did civil rights organizations use during the movement?

A combination of nonviolent, direct, and racially inclusive protests and grassroots efforts.

What were some key successes of the Civil Rights Movement?

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

What role did Black women play in the Civil Rights Movement?

They were central leaders but often faced gender discrimination within major organizations.

Who was Ella Baker and what was her contribution to the Civil Rights Movement?

Known as the 'mother of the Civil Rights movement,' she focused on grassroots organizing and group-centered leadership.

What did Ella Baker emphasize in her speech at SNCC's founding in 1960?

She argued that peaceful sit-ins demonstrated the need for full inclusion of African Americans in all aspects of American life.

What was Dorothy Height's role in the Civil Rights Movement?

She led the National Council of Negro Women for 40 years and worked on major civil rights projects.

What was the Coordinating Council of Community Organizations (CCCO)?

Established in the mid-1960s to protest school segregation in Chicago, later addressing employment and housing discrimination.

What was the New York City School Boycott of 1964?

A protest where 464,000 students boycotted school to oppose racial segregation in schools.

What was the significance of the New York City school boycott of 1964?

It was the largest single-day civil rights protest in U.S. history.

Who were some key Black women leaders in the Black Freedom Movement?

Ella Baker, Fannie Lou Hamer, and Dorothy Height.

What role did grassroots organizations play in the Black Freedom Movement?

They were just as impactful as leader-oriented organizations in achieving progress.

How did Black artists contribute to the Black Freedom Movement?

They used various forms of expression to bring attention to racial inequality and strengthen global efforts for Afro-descendants.

Who was Nicolas Gullien, and what was his contribution to the Black Freedom Movement?

He was a prominent Negrismo poet who examined anti-Black racism and denounced segregation and racial violence.

What type of music did Charles Mingus create, and what was its significance?

He composed protest songs that drew global attention to white supremacist responses to racial integration.

What role did faith and music play during the Civil Rights movement?

They were important for inspiration and community mobilization, with freedom songs emerging from hymns and spirituals.

What was the purpose of freedom songs in the Civil Rights Movement?

They inspired activists, unified spirits, provided direction, and communicated hopes for justice.

What is the significance of the song 'We Shall Overcome'?

It was described by Martin Luther King Jr. as the anthem of the Civil Rights movement and was sung during protests and marches.

What was the Nation of Islam (NOI), and when was it founded?

Founded in Detroit in 1930, it blended Islamic beliefs with Black Nationalist ideology.

Who led the Nation of Islam from 1934, and what did he encourage among his followers?

Elijah Muhammad led the NOI and encouraged followers to adopt Muslim surnames, often using 'X' to symbolize the abandonment of their enslavers' names.

What shift occurred in the mid-1960s regarding the Civil Rights movement?

Some African Americans embraced Black Power, believing the movement's focus on integration and nonviolence did not address their safety and empowerment.

What does the Black Power movement emphasize?

Self-determination, cultural pride, and the defense of violence as a viable strategy.

How did Black artists publicize their contributions to the freedom movement?

By bringing their art to a wider global audience.

What themes did Gullien's poetry highlight?

Racism in the U.S. and the lack of protections from the government.

What did Charles Mingus's music focus on regarding societal issues?

It focused on bringing attention to southern segregation.

What type of songs evolved in Black churches during the Civil Rights movement?

Freedom songs that adapted hymns, spirituals, and labor union songs.

How did freedom songs affect the spirits of activists?

They inspired and renewed activists' spirits as they fought for equality.

In what contexts was 'We Shall Overcome' commonly sung?

During marches, protests, arrests, and while in jail.

What was a key belief of the Nation of Islam regarding identity?

Members were encouraged to abandon their enslavers' names until they received a new Muslim identity.