Social Psychology: Persuasion, Groups, Prejudice, Aggression, and Helping

What is the Elaboration Likelihood Model?

A persuasion theory with two routes: central (careful thinking) and peripheral (superficial cues).

When does the central route occur?

When people are motivated and able to think carefully. Produces long-lasting attitudes.

When does the peripheral route occur?

When people rely on cues like attractiveness, credibility, or emotions instead of arguments.

What are Cialdini's six principles of persuasion?

Reciprocity, Scarcity, Authority, Consistency, Liking, Consensus (Social Proof).

What are the four elements of persuasion (Yale Approach)?

Who (communicator), What (message), How (delivery), To Whom (audience).

What makes a source credible?

Expertise and trustworthiness.

What is the sleeper effect?

A low-credibility source becomes more persuasive over time as the source is forgotten.

When is a one-sided message most effective?

When the audience already agrees or does not know the opposing side.

When is a two-sided message most effective?

When the audience disagrees or already knows the opposing arguments.

What is the foot-in-the-door technique?

Getting someone to agree to a small request before asking for a larger one.

What is the door-in-the-face technique?

Making a large request first, then a smaller request after rejection.

What is the low-ball technique?

Gaining agreement first, then revealing hidden costs.

Why does the "but you are free" technique work?

It reduces reactance by reminding people they have a choice.

What is the "that's not all" technique?

Adding bonuses before the person decides, increasing reciprocity.

What is attitude inoculation?

Strengthening attitudes by exposing people to weak opposing arguments.

What is reactance?

The tendency to resist when people feel their freedom is threatened.

What is social loafing?

Putting in less effort when working in a group.

What is group polarization?

Discussion strengthens members' original opinions, making them more extreme.

What is the risky shift phenomenon?

Groups often make riskier decisions than individuals.

What is groupthink?

Prioritizing agreement over critical thinking, leading to poor decisions.

Name four symptoms of groupthink.

Illusion of invulnerability, self-censorship, pressure on dissenters, illusion of unanimity.

How can groupthink be prevented?

Encourage criticism, remain impartial, invite opposing viewpoints.

What is deindividuation?

Loss of self-awareness and responsibility in groups due to anonymity.

What is the Just World Hypothesis?

The belief that people get what they deserve.

What is a stereotype?

A belief about a group.

What is prejudice?

A negative attitude toward a group.

What is discrimination?

Negative behavior toward members of a group.

What is blatant bias?

Open, obvious prejudice.

What is subtle bias?

Hidden or indirect prejudice.

How does prejudice develop?

Through observation, social learning, parents, media, and experiences.

How do parents influence prejudice?

Through modeling and parenting style, especially authoritarian parenting.

What causes prejudice according to Realistic Group Conflict Theory?

Competition over limited resources.

What is relative deprivation?

Feeling worse off compared to others.

What is Social Identity Theory?

The theory that self-esteem partly comes from group memberships.

What is stereotype threat?

Fear of confirming a negative stereotype, reducing performance.

What is ingroup bias?

Favoring your own group.

What is outgroup homogeneity?

Seeing members of another group as all alike.

How can prejudice be reduced?

Cooperative superordinate goals and positive intergroup contact.

What is hostile aggression?

Aggression motivated by anger.

What is instrumental aggression?

Aggression used to achieve another goal.

What biological factors influence aggression?

Genetics, hormones, brain activity, and alcohol.

What does Frustration-Aggression Theory say?

Blocked goals create frustration, which increases aggression.

How did Berkowitz revise the Frustration-Aggression Theory?

Frustration creates anger, but aggressive cues increase the likelihood of aggression.

What are aggressive cues?

Objects (like weapons) that increase aggressive behavior.

What increases aggression?

Pain, heat, insults, alcohol, arousal, violent media, and video games.

How can aggression be reduced?

Build empathy, reinforce nonaggressive behavior, and reduce aggressive models.

What is Social Exchange Theory?

The theory that we help when benefits outweigh costs.

What is altruism?

Helping with no expectation of personal reward.

What is the reciprocity norm?

The expectation to help those who have helped you.

What is the social responsibility norm?

The expectation to help those who need help.

Why is Kitty Genovese important?

Her murder inspired research on the bystander effect.

What is the bystander effect?

People are less likely to help when others are present.

What causes the bystander effect?

Diffusion of responsibility, where responsibility is shared among everyone present.

What is pluralistic ignorance?

Looking to others to decide whether an ambiguous situation is an emergency.

What are the five helping steps?

Notice → Interpret → Accept Responsibility → Know How → Help.

What increases helping behavior?

Good mood, knowing the victim, previous helping, and calling on someone directly.

What is a social trap?

A situation where short-term self-interest harms everyone long-term.

What is a commons dilemma?

People overuse a shared resource until it is depleted.

What is the prisoner's dilemma?

Cooperation benefits both, but self-interest encourages betrayal.

What is mirror-image perception?

Both opposing groups see themselves as peaceful and the other as aggressive.

Why do large groups experience more conflict?

Less accountability, more anonymity, and greater diffusion of responsibility.

What is cyber-ostracism?

Being ignored or excluded online.

What are the effects of ostracism?

Increased stress, lower self-esteem, and activation of physical pain brain regions.

How does proximity affect attraction?

We are more likely to like people who are physically near us.

What is the mere exposure effect?

Repeated exposure increases liking.

What is reciprocity in attraction?

We like people who like us.

Why does similarity increase attraction?

Shared attitudes and interests validate our beliefs.

What is the physical attractiveness stereotype?

The belief that "what is beautiful is good."

What is ingratiation?

Using flattery or agreement to make someone like you.

What does exchange theory say about relationships?

People seek relationships where rewards exceed costs.

What is Social Penetration Theory?

Relationships deepen through gradual self-disclosure.

What are the four attachment styles?

Secure, anxious, avoidant, and fearful.

What is equity in relationships?

Both partners perceive fairness in contributions and rewards.

What are Sternberg's three components of love?

Intimacy, Passion, and Commitment.

What is passionate love?

Intense emotional and physical attraction.

What is companionate love?

Deep affection, trust, and commitment.

What does research show about rejection?

Social rejection activates many of the same brain regions as physical pain.

What are common stages of relationship dissolution?

Intrapsychic → Dyadic → Social → Grave-dressing → Resurrection.

What was the main finding of the Zimbardo Prison Experiment?

Social roles and deindividuation can produce abusive behavior.

What was the main finding of Diener's Halloween Study?

Anonymous children in groups stole more candy than identifiable children.

What was the main finding of Sherif's Robbers Cave Experiment?

Competition creates prejudice; cooperation on superordinate goals reduces it.

What was the main finding of Berkowitz & LePage (1967)?

Weapons serve as aggressive cues that increase aggression.

What was the main finding of the Smoke-Filled Room Study?

People in groups were slower to report smoke due to pluralistic ignorance.

What was the main finding of the Seizure Study?

Helping decreases as the number of bystanders increases.

What was the main finding of the Seminary Student Study?

Time pressure greatly reduces helping behavior.

What was the main finding of Bushman (2002)?

Venting (catharsis) increased rather than reduced anger and aggression.

Which route produces longer-lasting attitude change?

The central route, because people carefully process the arguments.

What is need for cognition?

The tendency to enjoy thinking deeply; high need means less easy persuasion.

When are fear appeals most effective?

When they create moderate fear and provide a clear, effective solution.

What is the primacy effect in persuasion?

Information presented first is often remembered and influences attitudes most.

What is social facilitation?

Others' presence improves performance on easy tasks but hurts on difficult ones.

What is evaluation apprehension?

Concern about being judged by others, which affects performance.

Why does home-field advantage occur?

Crowd support increases home team arousal and distracts the visiting team.

What is attributional ambiguity?

Uncertainty about whether negative treatment is due to prejudice or another reason.

What is the difference between explicit and implicit attitudes?

Explicit attitudes are conscious; implicit attitudes are unconscious.

What does the Implicit Association Test (IAT) measure?

Automatic, unconscious associations.

What did the Clark Doll Study find?

Many Black children preferred the White doll, showing societal prejudice effects.

What does the Minimal Groups Paradigm show?

People show ingroup favoritism even when groups are assigned randomly.

What is the extended contact effect?

Knowing an ingroup member has an outgroup friend can reduce prejudice.

What is decision paralysis?

Being unable to help because of too many choices or uncertainty.