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reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.
continuous reinforcement schedule
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.
biofeedback
a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information
preparedness
a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value.
instinctive drift
the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
problem-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.
emotion-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction.
personal control
our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless.
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.
internal locus of control
the perception that we control our own fate.
self-control
the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.
observational learning
learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.)
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.