CHS Psychology Final

Behavior

The way a person reacts to changes in its internal condition or external environment.

Behaviorism

the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only

Natural Selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

Biological Perspective

the psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior such as genetics

Psychoanalytic Perspective

the perspective that stresses the influences of early childhood experiences and unconscious forces on human behavior

Behaviorist Perspective

the psychological perspective primarily concerned with observable behavior that can be objectively recorded and with the relationships of observable behavior to environmental stimuli

Survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, best way to acquire information in a relatively short amount of time

Case Study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth over an extended period of time. Useful when studying the influences of genetics over time. Example of Longitudinal Research.

Longitudinal Research

A research design in which a single individual or small group is followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed.

Cross-sectional Research

a research design in which individuals of different ages are assessed at the same time, limited by cohort effects

Cohort Effects

Effects due to a person's time of birth, era, or generation but not to actual age.

Internal Validity

the degree to which the effects observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable and not a 3rd variable

External Validity

the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people

Placebo Effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Tuskeegee Syphilis Study

Research conducted by the US to record ural history of syphilis in black men

Told participants they're being treated for "bad blood" and did not give informed consent

Given incentives that they could not say no to for taking part in the study

Lasted 40 years - even after penicillin was discovered, participants were not told of its effectiveness

Significant issues caused by lack of concern for the well being of the participants as well as informed consent.

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Photoreception

process by which the eye detects light energy

Chemoreception

detection of chemical stimuli, perceived as smell and taste

Mechanoreception

detection of pressure, vibration, and movement, perceived as touch, hearing, and equilibrium

Thermoreception

the ability to sense the temperature of objects and surfaces in contact with the skin

Absolute Threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

JND

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage, ratio rather than a constant amount)

Trichromatic Theory

Visual theory, stated by Young and Helmholtz that all colors can be made by mixing the three basic colors: red, green, and blue

Opponent Process Theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue) enable color vision. Explains why we see afterimages.

Shape Constancy

the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape is obstructed or distorted.

Size Constancy

the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance

Learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

Classical Conditioning

a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

Operant Conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Observational Learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

Bandura's Social-Cognitive Learning Theory

involves learning by observing and imitation of the behavior of another person; observer must pay attention to the model's behavior, must successfully recall the behavior, the behavior must be reproduced accurately, and the observer must be motivated to learn and carry out the behavior

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting pleasant stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing unpleasant stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Positive Punishment

the administration of an aversive stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

Negative Punishment

taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior

Fixed Ratio

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses such as an assembly line worker getting compensation after assembling 3 units

Fixed Interval

describes the schedule of reinforcement according to a known amount of time wherein a worker receives a paycheck every Friday

Variable Ratio

schedule of reinforcement occurs after an unknown number of responses such as gambling, produces a strong effect

Variable Interval

reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals such as pressing an elevator button

Instinctive Drift

tendency for animals to return to innate or instinctual behaviors following repeated reinforcement

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system, increases with depth of processing, undivided attention and elaboration.

Storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

A model for describing memory in which there are three distinguishable kinds of memory (sensory, short term, long term) through which info passes in a sequential way as it is processed.

Short-term Memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten, can be retained for 30 seconds without rehearsal

Sensory Memory

the immediate, very brief yet detailed recording of sensory information in the memory system, iconic is retained for a fraction of a second while echoic is retained for a few seconds.

Working Memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Long-term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Sustained Attention

the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time, promotes higher levels of encoding

Divided Attention

concentrating on more than one activity at the same time, leads to a lesser likelihood of encoding information

Imagery Code

The ability to store information in the form of visual cues, more effective than verbal code.

Verbal Code

The ability to store information in the form of verbal cues, less effective than imagery code.

Rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage, resets the STM time limitation

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically, enhances the STM unit limitation

Declarative Memory

the cognitive information retrieved from explicit memory; knowledge that can be declared or more easily communicated verbally.

Non-declarative Memory

Non associative learning such as procedural memory, classical conditioning, priming. Less easily communicated.

Semantic Memory

memory for knowledge and facts about the world, information

Episodic Memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place, memories involving experiences of the self

Implicit Memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection, non-declarative

Explicit Memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare", declarative

Serial Position Effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list, most likely to forget items in the middle of a sequence

Proactive Interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information, "I can't take in any more information"

Retroactive Interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information, "I can't remember what I learned last week".

Decay Theory

proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time, some memories do not fade (permastore)

Nature v. Nurture

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors, Interaction between genes and environmental factors

Cellular Clock Theory

cells are limited in the number of times they can reproduce to repair damage, telomeres become damaged which limits the integrity of DNA ceasing cell reproduction

Object Permamence

the awareness that things continue to exist, even when not perceived, occurs in the sensorimotor stage during infancy

Conservation

Ability to understand the quantity of a substance does not change regardless of its container or appearance, obtained in the preoperational stage

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

A theory made up of sensorimotor period, preoperational period, concrete operations, and formal operations

Harlow Study

Used a wire monkey and a cloth monkey with baby monkeys and they always liked the cloth mother, demonstrated that infant attachment is a need rather than a learned behavior

Authoritative Parenting

parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making, most likely to lead to positive outcomes

Authoritarian Parenting

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

Permissive Parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior even though the parent is involved.

Neglectful Parenting

a parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child's life either by choice or circumstance

Physical Development

development involving the body's physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, typically associated with physical growth

Cognitive Development

Centers on the mind and how the mind works as a child grows and learns, acquisition of skills regarding cognitive process such as the ability to think through concrete and abstract concepts

Moral Development

the changes in people's sense of justice and of what is right and wrong, and in their behavior related to moral issues

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Developing children progress through a predictable sequence of stages of moral reasoning (preconventional - considers punishment) (conventional - considers perception of others) (postconventional - considers higher principles such as right of life or liberty)

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

stage theory of psychosocial development, lifespan consists of eight dilemmas that must be solved correctly in order to solve the next dilemma

Bystander Effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present, likelihood higher to assist when a single individual is present

Social Cognition

the mental processes that people use to make sense of the social world around them

Social Contagion

imitative behavior involving the spread of actions, emotions, and ideas

Attribution Theory

suggests how we explain someone's behavior—by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition.

Altruism

unselfish concern for the welfare of others such a police officer risking their life to save the life of another

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

Cognitive Dissonance

an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs

Conformity

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Asch's Conformity Experiment

demonstrated the degree to which an individual's own opinions are influenced by those of a majority group, a majority (60%) of participants conformed at least once

Milgram Experiment

an experiment devised in 1961 by Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University, to see how far ordinary people would go to obey a scientific authority figure, a majority of participants delivered the most severe shocks

Deindiviualization

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Groupthink

a situation in which group members seek unanimous agreement despite their individual doubts

Ethnocentrism

Practice of maintaining or centering of one's own ethnic, racial or social group.