Introduction to Human Development – Key Vocabulary

This set of vocabulary flashcards covers the major theories, concepts, methods, and issues introduced in the lecture on human development, providing concise definitions to aid exam preparation.

Human Development

Multidisciplinary study of how people change and stay the same over time.

Life Span

The maximum documented age a human has lived; currently 122 years.

Life Expectancy

The average number of years a person born today can expect to live; currently about 78 years.

Nature–Nurture Issue

Debate over the relative influence of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) on development.

Continuity–Discontinuity Issue

Question of whether development is a smooth, gradual process (continuity) or a series of abrupt shifts (discontinuity).

Universal vs. Context-Specific Development

Whether there is one path of development for everyone (universal) or multiple paths depending on context.

Biological Forces

All genetic and health-related factors that influence development.

Psychological Forces

Internal cognitive, emotional, perceptual, and personality factors that affect development.

Sociocultural Forces

Interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic factors that influence development.

Life-Cycle Forces

The same event can have different effects depending on when it occurs in a person’s life.

Biopsychosocial Framework

Interaction of biological, psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle forces shaping development.

Chronological Age

Number of years that have elapsed since a person’s birth.

Biological Age

A person’s age in terms of biological health.

Psychological Age

Individual’s adaptive capacities compared with others of the same chronological age.

Social Age

Social roles and expectations related to a person’s chronological age.

Neuroscience

Scientific study of the brain and nervous system, especially brain-behavior relationships.

Psychodynamic Theory

Perspective that development is driven by the resolution of age-related internal conflicts.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Eight developmental stages where individuals face crises that shape personality.

Behaviorism

Learning theory (Skinner) stating that consequences determine the likelihood of a behavior’s repetition.

Social Learning Theory

Bandura’s idea that people learn through imitation or observational learning.

Cognitive-Developmental Theory

Perspective focusing on how thinking changes over time.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget’s first stage (birth–2 yrs): knowledge based on senses and motor actions.

Preoperational Thought

Piaget’s second stage (2–6 yrs): use of symbols but egocentric reasoning.

Concrete Operational Thought

Piaget’s third stage (7 yrs–early adolescence): logical operations applied to concrete situations.

Formal Operational Thought

Piaget’s fourth stage (adolescence+): abstract, hypothetical, and scientific reasoning.

Information-Processing Theory

View of cognition as mental hardware and software that improve with age.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Emphasizes how culture guides cognitive development.

Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s model of nested environmental systems influencing development.

Microsystem

Immediate environments (family, school, peers) in Bronfenbrenner’s theory.

Mesosystem

Interconnections among microsystems (e.g., parent-teacher relationships).

Exosystem

Social settings that indirectly influence the individual (e.g., parent’s workplace).

Macrosystem

Broader cultural values, laws, and customs affecting development.

Competence–Environmental Press Theory

Optimal adaptation occurs when abilities match environmental demands.

Life-Span Perspective

View that development is lifelong, multidirectional, plastic, contextual, and multidimensional.

Multidirectionality

Development involves both growth and decline in different areas.

Plasticity

Capacity for change in response to positive or negative experiences.

Historical Context

Development shaped by the time and culture in which one lives.

Multiple Causation

Development results from complex interaction of multiple forces.

Selective Optimization with Compensation

Baltes’ model: choosing goals, optimizing performance, and compensating for losses in aging.

Life-Course Perspective

Focus on how earlier life events influence later outcomes within social and historical contexts.

Systematic Observation

Careful watching and recording of behavior in real life or a structured setting.

Naturalistic Observation

Recording behavior as it occurs in everyday environments.

Structured Observation

Researcher-created setting designed to elicit specific behaviors.

Sampling Behavior with Tasks

Using tasks to elicit representative behaviors in a controlled way.

Self-Reports

Questionnaires or interviews where people describe their own thoughts, feelings, or actions.

Physiological Measures

Data such as brain imaging or heart rate used to link biology and behavior.

Reliability

Consistency of a measurement across time or observers.

Validity

Extent to which a measure accurately assesses what it intends to measure.

Correlational Study

Research that examines relationships between variables without manipulating them.

Correlation Coefficient

Numeric value (–1 to +1) indicating strength and direction of a relationship.

Experimental Study

Research design manipulating independent variables to observe effects on dependent variables.

Independent Variable

Factor manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

Outcome measured to see the effect of the independent variable.

Random Assignment

Placing participants into groups by chance to equalize conditions.

Qualitative Research

In-depth, descriptive study of behavior, often with small, non-random samples.

Longitudinal Design

Following the same individuals over time to study development.

Cross-Sectional Design

Studying people of different ages at one point in time.

Sequential Design

Combination of longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches for complex developmental questions.

Cohort Effects

Differences caused by historical experiences unique to a particular generation.

Informed Consent

Participants’ voluntary agreement to take part in research after learning its details.

Scientific Publication

Peer-reviewed report of research methods, findings, and interpretations.