PSYCH 1010 Exam 1 (Chapters 2 & 3)

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Dogmatism

the tendency to cling to one’s beliefs

Empiricism

the conviction that accurate knowledge of the world can be acquired by observing it

Scientific (Empirical) Method

a procedure for using empirical evidence to establish facts

1. Questions based in observation(s)

2. Develop a testable guess, aka the hypothesis

3. Test your hypothesis

4. Draw conclusions

5. Share your conclusions

Theory

an explanation of a natural phenomenon

Hypothesis

a falsifiable prediction made by a theory

Empirical Method

a set of rules and techniques for observation

Operational Definition

a description of a property in measurable terms

Construct Validity

the degree to which the operational definition adequately describes the important features of the phenomenon being studied

Power

a detector’s ability to detect the presence of differences or changes in the magnitude of a property

Reliability

measuring the construct, especially in its baseline state, the same way over time

Demand Characteristics

those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects; things about a situation that lead people to behave as they think they should, rather than as they normally would

Naturalistic Observation

a technique for gathering information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments

Observer Bias

the tendency for observers’ expectations to influence both what they believe they observed and what they actually observed

Double-Blind Study

a study in which neither the researcher nor the participant knows how the participants are expected to behave

Variables

properties that can have more than one value

Correlation

relationship between variables in which variations in the value of one variable are synchronized with variations in the value of the other

Third-variable Problem

the correlation between two variables cannot be taken as evidence of a causal relationship between them because a third variable could be causing them both

Experimentation

method for establishing the causal relationship between variables, and it has two critical components: manipulation and random assignment

Manipulation

a technique for determining the causal power of a variable by actively changing its value

Independent Variable

the variable that is manipulated in an experiment (manipulate)

Dependent Variable

the variable that is measured in an experiment (measure)

Self-selection

problem that occurs when anything about a participant determines the value of the independent variable to which the participant was exposed.

Random Assignment

procedure that assigns participants to conditions by chance

Internal Validity

an attribute of an experiment that allows it to establish causal relationships

External Validity

an attribute of an experiment in which variables have been operationally defined in a representative way; use WEIRD samples:

• Western

• Educated

• Industrialized

• Rich

• Democratic

Population

a complete collection of people

Sample

a partial collection of people drawn from a population

Case Method

procedure for gathering scientific information by studying a single individual

Random Sampling

technique for selecting participants that ensures every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample

Replication

an experiment that uses the same procedures as a previous experiment but with a new sample from the same population

Informed Consent

a verbal agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail

Debriefing

verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study

Measurement

How a concept is described in measurable terms

Positive Correlation

• In/decreases in one variable are associated with in/decreases on another

  • 0 < r ≤ 1

Negative Correlation

• Increases in one variable are associated with decreases on other

  • 0 < r ≤ -1

Control

• Want to make sure there are no extraneous variables

• The only difference between groups should be the IV

General Principles of Ethics

• Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence

  • Psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they work and take care to do no harm

• Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility

  • Psychologists establish relationships of trust with those with whom they work

• Principle C: Integrity

  • Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology

• Principle D: Justice

  • Psychologists recognize that fairness and justice entitle all persons to access to and benefit from the contributions of psychology and to equal quality in the processes, procedures, and services being conducted by psychologists

• Principle E: respect to People’s Rights and Dignity

  • Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination

Neurons

cells in the nervous system that communicate with each other to perform information-processing tasks; also brings us information from the outside world and helps us move our bodies

Cell Body (Soma)

the largest component of the neuron that coordinates the information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive

Nucleus

houses chromosomes that contain your DNA, the genetic blueprint of who you are

Cell Membrane

encloses the cell membrane, allows some molecules to flow into and out of the cell.

Dendrites

receive information from other neurons and relay it to the cell body

Axon

carries information to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Myelin Sheath

an insulating layer of fatty material; composed of glial cells

Gilal Cells

support cells found in the nervous system

Demyelinating Diseases

(i.e. multiple sclerosis) cause the myelin sheath to deteriorate, slowing communication from one neuron to another

Synapse

the junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another

Sensory Neurons

receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord

Motor Neurons

carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement; long axons to reach muscles at our extremities

Interneurons

connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, or other of its same kind; most of the nervous system is composed of these

Ions

atoms or molecules that carry a small positive (+) or negative (−) electric charge; their flow across the neuron’s cell membrane creates the conduction of electric current within the neuron

Resting Potential

the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron’s cell membrane; Neuron's interior charged at -70 mV

Action Potential

an electric signal that is conducted along the length of a neuron’s axon to a synapse; all-or-nothing;

• Incoming impulse opens gate

• All or none

  • Once threshold is reached, the action potential engages

• Refractory period

  • The axon's interior needs to reset to -70Mv and cannot fire again until it does so

    • (note: this can happen really quickly)

Threshold

the certain level that needs to be reached for an action potential to occur

Nodes of Ranvier

Myelin clumps around the axon with little break points between clumps, looking kind of like sausage links; current seems to “jump” quickly from node to node; this process helps speed the flow of information down the axon.

Refractory Period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated; during this, the electrical and chemical balance of the neuron is restored

Terminal Buttons

knoblike structures that branch out from an axon; each is filled with tiny vesicles

Neurotransmitters

chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron’s dendrites; i.e. Serotonin and Dopamine

Receptors

parts of the cell membrane that receive the neurotransmitter and either initiate or prevent a new electric signal

Synaptic Transmission

the sending and receiving of chemical neurotransmitters from presynaptic (sending) neurons to postsynaptic (receiving) neurons

Steps for Neurotransmitters Leaving the Synapse/”Cease Firing”

1. Reuptake

2. Enzyme Deactivation/Breakdown

3. Diffusion

Autoreceptors

detect how much of a neurotransmitter has been released into a synapse and may stop the release of more

Agonists

drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter

Antagonists

drugs that diminish the function of a neurotransmitter

Nervous System

an interacting network of neurons that conveys electrochemical information throughout the body

Central Nervous System (CNS)

the part of the nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the part of the nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the body’s organs and muscles

Somatic Nervous System

a set of nerves that conveys information between skeletal muscles and the central nervous system

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

a set of nerves that carries involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands; has two major subdivisions, the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic Nervous System

a set of nerves that prepares the body for action in challenging or threatening situations; the sum total of these fast, automatic responses is that they increase the likelihood that you can escape

Parasympathetic Nervous System

helps the body return to a normal resting state; kicks in to reverse the effects of the sympathetic nervous system and return your body to its normal state

Spinal Reflexes

simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions

Hindbrain

an area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord; looks like a stalk on which the rest of the brain sits, and it controls the most basic functions of life: respiration, alertness, and motor skills; made of the medulla, the reticular formation, the cerebellum, and the pons

Medulla

an extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration; Partially explains why neck injuries are so dangerous

Reticular Formation

regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal; maintains the same delicate balance between alertness and unconsciousness in humans. In fact, many general anesthetics work by reducing activity in this part

Cerebellum

a large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills

Pons

a structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain; essentially acts as a relay station or bridge between the cerebellum and other structures in the brain.

Midbrain

sitting on top of the hindbrain, is relatively small in humans; contains two main structures: the tectum and the tegmentum

Tectum

orients an organism in the environment; receives stimulus input from the eyes, ears, and skin and moves the organism in a coordinated way toward the stimulus

Tegmentum

involved in movement and arousal; it also helps to orient an organism toward sensory stimuli

Forebrain

involved in movement and arousal; it also helps to orient an organism toward sensory stimuli; divided into two main sections: the cerebral cortex and the subcortical structures

Cerebral Cortex

the outermost layer of the brain and is divided into two hemispheres; contains occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal lobes

Subcortical Structures

areas of the forebrain housed under the cerebral cortex near the center of the brain; relaying information throughout the brain, as well as in performing specific tasks that allow us to think, feel, and behave as humans; includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and basal ganglia

Thalamus

relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the cerebral cortex (except smell)

Hypothalamus

located below the thalamus, and regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior; Autonomic; Pituitary gland takes a lot of command from the hypothalamus gland to help with hormone release; both involved in the endocrine system

Hippocampus

is critical for creating new memories and integrating them into a network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of the cerebral cortex

Amygdala

located at the tip of each horn of the hippocampus, plays a central role in many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories

Basal Ganglia

a set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements and plays a role in reward processing; receive input from the cerebral cortex and send outputs to the motor centers in the brainstem

Endocrine System

a network of glands that produce and secrete into the bloodstream chemicals known as hormones, which influence a wide variety of basic functions, including metabolism, growth, and sexual development

Pituitary Gland

the “master gland” of the body’s hormone-producing system, which releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body

Commissures

bundles of axons that make possible communication between parallel areas of the cortex in each half

Corpus Callosum

largest of commissures; myelinated axons connect large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres

Organization Across Hemispheres

The first level of organization divides the cortex into the left and right hemispheres; each hemisphere controls the functions of the opposite side of the body

Organization Within Hemispheres

The second level of organization in the cerebral cortex distinguishes the functions of the different regions within each hemisphere of the brain. Each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is divided into four areas, or lobes

Occipital Lobe

located at the back of the cerebral cortex, processes visual information

Parietal Lobe

located in front of the occipital lobe, carries out functions that include processing information about touch; contains somatosensory cortex

Somatosensory Cortex

a strip of brain tissue running from the top of the brain down to the sides; can be illustrated as a distorted figure, called a homunculus (“little man”), in which the body parts are rendered according to how much of this term is devoted to them

Temporal Lobe

located on the lower side of each hemisphere, is responsible for hearing and language; has the primary auditory cortex, which is analogous to the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe and the primary visual areas of the occipital lobe: it receives sensory information from the ears; processing of sound for hearing; language

Frontal Lobe

sits behind the forehead, has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgment; contains the motor cortex, which lies directly in front of the somatosensory cortex, and which coordinates movements of muscle groups throughout the body