AP Psychology 2.3-2.7 vocab

Memory-related vocab

Explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort—we encode explicit memories through this process

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings—we encode implicit memories through this process

Implicit memory

Retention independent of conscious recollection, subconscious memory—also known as nondeclarative memory

Space, time, frequency

3 things you automatically process?

Sensory memory

Feeds active working memory, recording momentary images of sensations as we experience them—immediate memory

Iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar manageable units; often occurs automatically, enabling us to recall more easily (e.g. using acronyms to group related information, like HOMES for the Great Lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior)

Mnemonics

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices; a memory technique using rhymes/memorable verbal information (e.g. peg-word system “one is a bun, two is a shoe,” etc)

Hierarchy

A more advanced version of chunking and developed from expertise in an area; composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

Spacing effect

The tendency for distributing study or practice in multiple time intervals over a long period of time to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Massed practice (cramming)

A studying technique that can produce speedy short-term memory and feelings of confidence, but generally proves less effective in sustaining long-term retention—people forget the information more easily over a long period of time if they use this technique

Shallow Processing

Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words (letters or sounds)

Deep processing

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Self-Inference Effect

A tendency to remember information for a longer period of time when we can relate the information meaningfully to ourselves (e.g. relating to our experiences, feelings, thoughts)

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Encoding

The processing of information into the memory system (e.g. consciously extracting meaning from the information)

Storage

The cognitive process of retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage for use; transferring memories from long-term storage to short-term storage

Parallel processing

The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

Short-term Memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as 7 digits of a phone number while dialing it, before the information is either stored or forgotten

Long-term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Involves the memory of knowledge, skills, and experiences. Depending on the situation, memories from here are retrieved/committed to short-term memory for use

Working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory—a complex part of short-term memory

Long-term potentiation

A persistent increase in the strength of synaptic connections in the brain after high-frequency stimulation. In other words, repeated exposure to a stimulus creates more serotonin in certain areas which allows the brain to become more efficient in transmitting information. It is a cellular mechanism that underlies learning and memory. Occurs most often in the hippocampus.

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

Recognition

A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Relearning

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again (e.g. if you have not ridden your bike in awhile, you will relearn how to ride it quicker than if you were learning for the first time)

Central executive

A cognitive system that plays a crucial role in working memory. It is responsible for directing attention, maintaining goals, decision-making, memory retrieval, coordinating systems, integrating memories, conscious awareness, and imagination

Phonological loop

A part of the central executive system; a part of the working memory that handles verbal and auditory information by briefly holding spoken words and repeating information to keep it active in memory

Visuospatial sketchpad

A part of the central executive that handles visual and spatial information + creates and manipulates mental images

Episodic buffer

A cognitive process that integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory to create cohesive, detailed episodes in memory—helps us “relive” the experience in the way perceived it

Hippocampus

A temporal lobe neural center located in the limbic system; helps to process explicit memories for storage

Classical conditioning

A type of learning where an involuntary, reflexive response becomes associated with a new stimulus through repeated pairing (e.g. Pavlov’s dog and the dinner bell)

Basal ganglia

Deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories (unconscious) for skills—helps with automatic processing

Flashbulb memory

The stronger our emotions are during an event, the more clear and precise our memories will be; A clear, vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event (e.g. traumatic experiences)

Maintenance Retrieval

Refers to the cognitive process of accessing information that has been previously encoded and stored in memory without engaging in deep processing. Often involves recalling specific facts or details that have not been elaborately connected to other knowledge, making it more surface-level recall

Maintenance Rehearsal

A memory technique used to keep information in short-term memory by repeatedly verbalizing or mentally reviewing it. Helps to maintain information in an active state, preventing it from fading away, but it typically does not promote the transfer of that information into long-term memory since it lacks deep processing

Method of Loci

Known as the memory palace technique. It is a mnemonic device that utilizes spatial memory to aid in the recall of information. By associating items to be remembered with specific locations within a familiar setting, individuals can create a mental map that facilitates easier retrieval when they mentally “walk” through that location

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon

A common cognitive experience where an individual temporarily cannot retrieve a known word or piece of information, even though it feels just out of reach. During this state, individuals often experience a strong sensation that they know the answer but cannot articulate it, and they may recall related details but struggle with the exact target memory

Priming

A type of retrieval cue; the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory “invisible memories” (ex: when thinking of the word “yellow,” you may automatically associate it with the word “banana” or the word “peanut butter” with “jelly”)

Context-Dependent Memory

Putting yourself back into the context/location where you experienced or thought something can prime your memory retrieval (e.g. college students tend to score higher on tests if they take the test in the same room where they were given lectures, as opposed to taking the test in a different room)

State Dependent Memory

Closely related to context-dependent memory; what we may learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are once again in that state

Mood congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s mood (e.g. if someone is stressed or burnt-out, they may start to recall negative, depressive experiences in that moment, furthering this mood of stress and exhaustion)

Serial position effect

Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list; can leave holes in memory

Elaborative Rehearsal

Helps to commit information to long-term memory by contextualizing information for better storage and retrieval (e.g. chunking, using rhymes and puns, mnemonics)

Interleaving

A learning strategy in which multiple topics or skill are mixed together during practice, rather than studying each one in blocks—contrasts with “blocked practice,” where a single skill or topic is practiced repeatedly before moving on to another

Encoding specificity

According to this principle, stimuli may act as retrieval cues for an experience if they were encoded with the main experience. Pictures, words, sounds, or smells will cause us to remember an experience to the extent that they are similar to the features of the experience that we encoded into memory

Anterograde amnesia

An inability to form new memories, but can still recall past memories and subconsciously learn new skills (automatic processing still intact)

Retrograde amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one’s past experiences, but can form new memories and subconsciously learn new skills (automatic processing still intact)

Reactive interference

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive interference

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Repression

In psychoanalytic theory/according to Sigmund Freud, the basic defense mechanism that banishes conscious anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories (believed that these memories can still linger and be retrieved with therapy)

Misinformation effect

The tendency to incorporate misleading information into one’s memory of an event, thus warping the memory

Source amnesia

The tendency of attributing the wrong source to something we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (e.g. authors sometimes mistakenly think an idea they had came from creative imagination, when it actually came from something they read or heard about)

Deja vu

That eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before” cues from the current situation that may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience; happens when the parts of our brain that facilitate recognition and memory are out of sync, meaning we may experience a feeling of familiarity without conscious recall

Reconsolidation

When a memory is retrieved, it is reactivated and becomes temporarily unstable/it is in a labile state, during this period, the memory can be influenced by new information, emotions, or experiences; if the memory is then stored again, it may be altered or strengthened, reflecting the new influences

The Forgetting Curve/Storage Decay

a graphical representation in psychology that depicts the decline in memory retention over time. It shows how information is quickly forgotten after initial learning, followed by a gradual decrease in forgetting rate/forgetting starts off rapidly, then reaches a plateau of over time; forgetting happens most rapidly right after learning and continues at a steep rate within the first few hours and day

Suppression

The act of deliberately trying to forget or not think about painful or unwanted thoughts

Repression describes unwanted impulses or thoughts being unconsciously pushed out of memory, suppression is the act of deliberately/consciously trying to forget or not think about painful or unwanted thoughts

Repression vs Suppression?

Motivated forgetting

Similar to suppression; the tendency to repress painful or unacceptable memories to protect our self-concept & to minimize anxiety

Elizabeth Loftus

Cognitive psychologist known for her work on the malleability of memory and the misinformation effect, which demonstrates how memories can be altered by leading questions or misleading information. In a classic study of hers, people who were asked how fast cars were going when they "smashed" into each other reported seeing broken glass, even though the video of the accident did not show any. Those asked when the cars "hit" did not report seeing broken glass

Anterograde amnesia = inability to form new memories or retain new information, can recall previously formed memories, caused by damage to the medial temporal lobe and medial diencephalon, can be treated by learning thru repetition, practice, and with proper cues

Retrograde amnesia = inability to recall previously encoded memories and information, able to encode new information, caused by damage to areas adjacent to the hippocampus, can be treated by exposing lost memories (usually temporary in nature)

Anterograde amnesia vs retrograde amnesia? (definition, cause, treatment?)

Testing effect

a cognitive phenomenon that describes the improvement in long-term memory retention that occurs when individuals test themselves on previously studied material. Suggests that actively retrieving information through testing can enhance its storage and recall in the brain. This is in contrast to passively reviewing or re-studying material, which may not be as effective for long-term memory

Cued recall

A memory retrieval technique where individuals are provided with cues or prompts to help them recall specific information

Free recall

A memory task where individuals are asked to retrieve and report as many items as possible from a previously presented list, without any cues or prompts

Autobiographical memory

a type of long-term memory that stores personal experiences and events from one's own life

Semantic memory, episodic memory, autobiographical memory

Types of explicit memories (3)?

Procedural memory, priming

Types of implicit memories (2)?

Central executive, phonological loop, visual-spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer

Parts of working memory (4)?

Semantic memory

Long-term memory that serves as a mental encyclopedia; stores words, rules, facts, meanings, and concepts. Information has no temporal link and can be recalled without reference to when it is learnt. Recall doesn’t affect or change memory

Memory consolidation

The process that occurs in the hippocampus by which short-term memories/newer memories are transformed into long-term memories. It is a critical stage in memory formation that ensures that experiences and information are retained over time

Procedural memory

A type of long-term, implicit memory that stores your knowledge of how to perform tasks without conscious thought, such as riding a bike, tying shoes, or driving a car/it is also memory that activates when you are following a daily routine. This is often learned through practice and becomes an automatic, physical or cognitive skill that you can perform without having to actively recall the steps

Episodic Memory

A type of long-term memory that stores specific personal experiences, including the "what, where, and when" of past events and their associated emotions. It is a form of declarative memory that allows you to mentally travel back and re-experience events like your birthday party or a vacation.

Storage Decay Theory

a psychological theory suggesting that memories fade and become less accessible over time due to disuse. The theory states that memory traces, which are the physical or chemical changes in the brain representing a memory, gradually deteriorate unless they are maintained through active rehearsal or retrieval. This process is most evident in short-term memory, as long-term memories are often more resistant to being forgotten 

Encoding Failure

the inability to form a memory, not because the memory was lost, but because it was never properly stored in the first place due to a lack of attention or processing. It happens when information isn't effectively transferred from short-term to long-term memory, often caused by distractions, stress, or complex information.

Retrieval Failure

the inability to access information from long-term memory that is actually stored there. This happens because the necessary retrieval cues (internal or external triggers) are either absent or insufficient to prompt the memory. For example, forgetting where you put your keys can be a retrieval failure if you don't have a strong enough cue to access that information. 

Storage Failure

the inability to retain information in long-term memory, which can happen due to insufficient encoding, the natural decay of memories over time, or interference from other memories.