Geology, Earth Resources, and Climate Change Overview

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254 Terms

1

Crust

Outermost layer, least dense, brittle.

<p>Outermost layer, least dense, brittle.</p>
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2

Oceanic Crust

Thinner, denser, recycled under 200 million years.

<p>Thinner, denser, recycled under 200 million years.</p>
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3

Continental Crust

Thicker, less dense, up to 3.8 billion years.

<p>Thicker, less dense, up to 3.8 billion years.</p>
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4

Outer Core

Hot, slowly moving liquid, generates magnetic field.

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5

Inner Core

Solid state of iron and nickel under pressure.

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6

Mantle

Hot, pliable rock layer, increases in density.

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7

Asthenosphere

Upper mantle part, less rigid, allows movement.

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8

Tectonic Plates

Sections of crust floating on mantle.

<p>Sections of crust floating on mantle.</p>
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9

Divergent Boundary

Plates move apart, creates new oceanic crust.

<p>Plates move apart, creates new oceanic crust.</p>
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10

Convergent Boundary

Plates move together, destroys oceanic crust.

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11

Transform Fault Boundary

Plates slide past, no crust created or destroyed.

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12

Subduction

Denser oceanic plate descends into mantle.

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13

Trenches

Formed at converging plate boundaries.

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14

Volcanic Arcs

Created at converging plate boundaries from magma.

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15

Orogeny

Mountain formation at converging plate boundaries.

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16

Precambrian Era

4.6 billion - 545 million years ago.

<p>4.6 billion - 545 million years ago.</p>
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17

Great Oxygenation Event

2.4 billion years ago, atmosphere became oxygen-rich.

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18

Paleozoic Era

545 - 245 million years ago, explosion of life.

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19

Cambrian Period

Begins Paleozoic, abundant fossil record starts.

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20

Mesozoic Era

Age of Dinosaurs, 245 - 65 million years ago.

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21

Mass Extinction

Largest extinction at end of Permian period.

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22

Converging Plate Boundaries

Denser plates subduct, lighter plates remain.

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23

Earth Processes

Natural occurrences shaping Earth's structure and resources.

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24

Plateosaurus

Oldest dinosaur fossil, 243 million years old.

<p>Oldest dinosaur fossil, 243 million years old.</p>
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25

Meteor extinction theory

Meteor impact caused dinosaur extinction 66 million years ago.

<p>Meteor impact caused dinosaur extinction 66 million years ago.</p>
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26

Cenozoic Era

Current geological era, began 65 million years ago.

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27

Australopithecus afarensis

Early hominid species appeared 3.2 million years ago.

<p>Early hominid species appeared 3.2 million years ago.</p>
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28

Homo sapiens

Modern humans appeared 315,000 years ago.

<p>Modern humans appeared 315,000 years ago.</p>
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29

Igneous Rocks

Formed from magma cooling at surface or underground.

<p>Formed from magma cooling at surface or underground.</p>
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30

Extrusive igneous rocks

Form from lava, cool quickly, microscopic grains.

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31

Basalt

Fine-grained rock formed from quickly cooled lava.

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32

Intrusive igneous rocks

Form from magma underground, larger mineral grains.

<p>Form from magma underground, larger mineral grains.</p>
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33

Granite

Slowly cooled rock with visible mineral grains.

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34

Metamorphic Rocks

Formed under pressure and heat from existing rocks.

<p>Formed under pressure and heat from existing rocks.</p>
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35

Foliated metamorphic rocks

Mineral grains align under directional pressure.

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36

Gneiss

Foliated rock formed from granite.

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37

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks

Mineral grains not aligned due to omnidirectional pressure.

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38

Marble

Non-foliated rock formed from limestone.

<p>Non-foliated rock formed from limestone.</p>
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39

Sedimentary Rocks

Formed on Earth's surface from weathering and erosion.

<p>Formed on Earth's surface from weathering and erosion.</p>
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40

Clastic rocks

Formed from lithified smaller rocks.

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41

Conglomerates

Large rocks lithified together.

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42

Organic rocks

Formed from deposition of plant or animal materials.

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43

Coal

Organic rock formed from plant matter deposition.

<p>Organic rock formed from plant matter deposition.</p>
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44

Chemical rocks

Formed from minerals precipitating out of solution.

<p>Formed from minerals precipitating out of solution.</p>
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45

Halite

Rock salt formed from evaporated seawater.

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46

Mechanical weathering

Physical break-up of rocks without chemical change.

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47

Chemical weathering

Alters specific components, weakens rock structure.

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48

Oxidation

Oxygen reacts with minerals, causing rusting.

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49

Hydrolysis

Water dissolves minerals in rocks.

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50

Carbonation

Acidic water breaks down limestone into carbon dioxide.

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51

Sedimentation

Deposition of transported rock particles in new locations.

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52

Peat

Organic matter that forms coal over time.

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53

Coal Formation

Burial of peat under pressure and heat.

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54

Energy Density

Amount of energy produced per unit mass.

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55

Lignite Coal

Lowest grade coal, requires 60 million years burial.

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56

Sub-bituminous Coal

Requires 250 million years burial for formation.

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57

Bituminous Coal

Requires 300 million years burial for formation.

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58

Anthracite Coal

Highest grade coal, requires 350 million years burial.

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59

Carbon Dioxide Release

Anthracite releases most CO2 per BTU.

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60

Mesozoic Era

Period when most oil reserves formed.

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61

Kerogen

Organic matter in oil shale that generates oil.

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62

Anoxic Environment

Lack of oxygen preventing decomposition of organic matter.

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63

Oil Formation Temperature

Oil forms at 90°C to 160°C; above forms gas.

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64

Confining Layer

Structure holding oil in place, resembles upside-down bowl.

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65

Rare Earth Elements

China dominates market; U.S. has stricter laws.

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66

Mountain Pass Mine

California mine closed due to competition and costs.

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67

Recycling Benefits

Reduces demand for new ore and environmental impact.

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68

Substitution

Using alternatives to reduce resource demand.

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69

Open-Pit Mining

Surface mining method for various minerals and ores.

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70

Toxic Lake

Water-filled open pits can become hazardous to wildlife.

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71

Berkeley Pit Incident

Thousands of birds died from contaminated mine water.

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72

Strip Mining

Removes vegetation and soil to access coal seams.

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73

Spoil Banks

Debris piles from mining that can erode and contaminate.

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74

Reclamation Measures

Efforts to restore land after mining activities.

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75

Mountaintop Removal

Explosives remove mountains to access coal seams.

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76

Buried Streams

900 km of streams buried in West Virginia.

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77

Clean Water Act

EPA halted major mountaintop removal in 2011.

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78

Underground Mining Risks

Includes tunnel collapses, explosions, and contamination.

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79

Centralia Mine Fire

Burning since 1962, costing $40 million to control.

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80

Coal Mine Fires in China

Some have burned for 400 years.

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81

Ore Processing Pollution

Can be more polluting than mining itself.

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82

Smelting

Heating ore to extract metals, causes air pollution.

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83

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

Released from sulfide ores, contributes to acid rain.

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84

Acid Rain

Forms from sulfuric acid, harms vegetation and aquatic life.

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85

Heap Leach Extraction

Uses cyanide to dissolve gold from crushed ore.

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86

Freshwater Usage

Rinsing ores consumes large amounts of water.

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87

Contaminated Wastewater

Contains arsenic, heavy metals, and mercury.

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88

Mine Site Reclamation Costs

Estimated $70 billion cleanup cost for U.S. abandoned mines.

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89

Bonding Money Requirement

1977 law requires funds for site cleanup before mining.

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90

Meridian Gold Beartrack Mine

$220 million gold extracted, only $2 million bonded.

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91

Gold King Mine Incident

Toxic sludge leaked, killing aquatic life in Animas River.

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92

General Mining Law of 1872

Allowed mining land sales at $2.50 to $5 per acre.

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93

Land Use Abuse

Purchased land can be used for non-mining purposes.

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94

Royalty Payments

Mining companies pay no royalties on federal land.

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95

Potential Royalty Revenue

8% royalties could generate $320 million annually.

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96

Current Bonding Issues

Existing bonds for cleanup are insufficient.

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97

Environmental Regulations Debate

Should mining laws be revised for better protections?

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98

Bonds for site cleanup

Higher bonds could save $320 million annually.

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99

Meteor impact

Caused Mesozoic extinction through atmospheric soot.

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100

Volcanic eruptions

Permian extinction caused by gases and cooling.

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