EXAM 1 PSYCH

Define psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Science

The use of systematic methods to observe the natural world and to draw conclusions

What are the 4 attitudes of a psychological frame of mind

Critical thinking, skepticism, objectivity and curiosity

Critical thinking

The process of reflecting deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence

empirical method

Gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data, and logical reasoning

Sructuralism

The break down the contents of the conscious mind into basic units in order to identify the structure of conscious experience and describe its major components.

“What are the parts of the mind?” (structure, elements).

Functionalism

Places emphasis on the purposes of consciousness rather than the breaking down of consciousness into parts.

“What does the mind do and why does it matter?” (purpose, function).

Distinguishing between structuralism and functionalism

• Structuralism (Wundt & Titchener):
  Attempted to "break down the contents of the conscious mind into basic units in order to identify the structure of conscious experience and describe its major components."
  Used introspection.

• Functionalism (William James):
  Placed emphasis "on the purposes of consciousness rather than breaking down consciousness into parts."
  Focused on "human interactions with the outside world and the purpose of thoughts."

What are some characteristics of the biological approach

1. Physiological basis of behavior

2. Genetics

3. Brain structures

4. Neurotransmitters and hormones

5. Scientific methods

6. Deterministic view

7. Applications

Behavior

Everything we do that can be directly observed

What are some characteristics of the Behavioral approach

Focuses on Observable behavior.

Behaviorists look at how the environment shapes actions.

Focuses on how our body and brain shape the way we think, feel, and act.

Looks at how our brain, nervous system, and even genes influence behavior.

Shows that our mental state is connected to our biology.

Mental processes

The thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly

What are some characteristics of the psychodynamic approach

Emphasizes unconscious thought

The conflict between biological drives and society’s demands and early childhood family experiences.

What are some characteristics of the Humanistic approach

emphasizes a person's positive qualities. the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose one's destiny.

focused on the creative potential and psychological health of human beings and is emphasized on free will and individuals control of their own behavior.

focuses on the present, not the past or their healthy personality.

They theorize that people can choose to live by higher human values.

• each person experiences the world differently

• all human beings have basic need to grow to their fullest potential

What are some characteristics of the cognitive approach

problem solving, decision making, information processing

emphasizes the mental process involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.

involves the ways the human mind interprets incoming information, weights it, stores it, and applies it to decision making.

What are some characteristics of the Evolutionary Approach?

The evolutionary approach attempts to explain behavior using adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection.

When we say that a characteristic is adaptive, we are focusing on how it makes an organism better able to survive.

The evolutionary approach also focuses on the role a particular organism physical structure or behavior plays in helping an organism adapt to its environment over time

What are some characteristics of the Sociocultural Approach?

looks at the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior

believe that understanding a humans behavior requires knowing about the cultural context in which the behavior occurs

Researchers who focus on _______ influences might compare people from different cultures to see whether they are similar or different in important ways

Also focuses on behavior of people from different ethic and cultural groups within a country

Describe the 5 steps in the scientific method

1)  Observing some phenomenon – Let’s say a scientist wants to study the

    influence of alcohol on aggression.  In this example there are two variables,

    alcohol and aggression.  A variable is defined as anything that can change; or

    anything that can be measured.  The scientist than formulates a theory.  A theory

    is a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain

    observations.

 

2)  Formulating hypotheses and predictions – The second step in the scientific

    method is to state a hypothesis.  A hypothesis is an educated guess that

    derives logically from a theory.  It is a prediction that can be tested.   It is a

    tentative explanation for behavior.

 

3)  Testing through empirical research – The third step is to test the hypothesis

    by conducting empirical research.  Empirical means to derive from

    naturalistic observation or from experimental procedures.  At this point, it is

    time to design a study that will test predictions that are based on the theory.  

    To do this the researcher must first define or describe the variables of interest

    so that they can be measured.  

    The variables are presented as operational definitions, assigning meaning by

    specifying the activities or operations necessary to measure, categorize, or

    manipulate the variable. (Achievement can be operationally defined as grades

    or class rank.)

 

4)  Drawing conclusions – Based on the results of the data analyses, scientists then

    draw conclusions from their research.  Repeated replication across different

    researchers and different specific methods leads to reliability. Results must be

    replicated in order to ensure reliability.

 

5)  Evaluating the theory – The final step in the scientific method is for the theory

    to undergo rigorous review.  Meta-analysis is a method that allows researchers to

    combine the results of several different studies on a similar topic in order to

    establish the strength of an effect.

 

Distinguish between the 3 descriptive methods (observation, surveys, case studies).

1)  Observation – this method is commonly referred to as naturalistic

    observation.  These are formal, recorded observations of events.  

    The methodology here can include a systematic procedure on what

    and how to go about gathering data.  Some types of observation

    require that the observer must be careful not to affect the behaviors

    they observe and record.

 

2)  Surveys and interviews – a second method used in descriptive

    research involves the investigator selecting a sample of

    respondents and administers a questionnaire or conducts interviews

    to collect information on variables of interest.  Surveys are used

    to learn about people’s attitudes, beliefs, values, demographics,

    behavior, opinions, habits, desires, ideas, and other types of

    information.

 

3)  Case studies – a case study is an in-depth study of a single

    individual or event.  The researcher concentrates on one single

    individual in order to gather a great deal of information about

    the individual.  Caution should be followed when applying

    information obtained from one individual to others in the general

    population.

Describe the major characteristics of correlational research.

Correlational research involves research in which information on at least two variables are collected for each subject in order to investigate the relationship between the variables.

A correlation coefficient can have a value ranging from +1.00 to -1.00.  

A correlation coefficient is basically describing the relationship between two variables.

+1.00 is a perfect positive correlation or relationship. A positive correlation means that high values of one variable are associated with high values on a second variable.

-1.00 is a perfect negative correlation or relationship.  A negative correlation means that high values of one variable are associated with low values on a second variable.

Correlation does not imply causality; meaning that a correlation between two variables does not mean that one variable causes the other.

Describe the major characteristics of experimental research.

the experimental method is the only method that investigates cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating conditions and measuring outcomes.

The experimental method is a research method that involves manipulating independent variables to determine how they affect dependent variables.