Critical Thinking Quiz #1

Good Critical Thinker

Person who will not believe a claim unless supported by good reason or arguments, and when making claims to others they provide good reasons and evidence as support

Bad Critical Thinker

Will believe claims not supported by reasons or arguments. And when making claims they do not provide good reasons and arguments as support.

Define Argument

A set of two or more sentences where one of those sentences is the conclusion of the argument. And all other sentences are premisesthat provide support for the conclusion.

Parts of an argument?

Premises and Conclusion

Define Truth

When what a sentence says, matches the facts of reality

Define Belief

When a person thinks that a sentence is true. (There are false and true beliefs)

Conclusion indicator Words

Therefore

Thus

In conclusion

Consequently

Hence

Ergo

Accordingly

It follows that

Premise Indicator Words

Because

Since

Due to

Given that

Considering that

What is an imperative sentence?

Commands

What is an interrogative sentence?

Questions

What is an assertoric sentence?

A sentence that is either true or false (a claim or statement with a truth or falsehood)

Define what makes an argument deductively valid

If the premises in the argument are true, then the conclusion must be true. (this relies on assuming the premises are true, and that they line up with the conclusion. the premises themselves don’t necessarily have to be true)

Define what makes an argument deductively sound

A deductively sound argument is a valid argument with all true premises. (premises must line up with reality and the conclusion)

ex of a valid but not sound argument

1) all humans have walked on mars

2) Robert Moore is a human

---

Robert Moore has walked on mars

ex of a sound argument

1) All humans are mortal
2) Socrates is a human

Socrates is mortal.

inductively strong and weak argument

Inductive argument: if all the premises are true then the conclusion is highly likely to be true

ex of a strong inductive argument: the sun has come up every morning for billions of years

the sun will come up tomorrow

Weak inductive argument

I’ve only ever seen white swans

therefore all swans must be white

Disjunctive syllogism example

Argument from elimination (either or)

1)either a or b

2)not a

must be b

Modus Ponens example

1) If p, then q
2) p
therefore, q

Modus Tollens example

1) If p, then q
2) not q
therefore, not p

Chain Argument Example

1) If p, then q
2) If q, then r
therefore, if p, then r

Standard form of an argument

mathematical structure

3 stages of cognitive development

Dualism - appeal to authority

Relativism - truth is just personal opinions, and all opinions are equal

Commitment - commitment to personal views based on reason and best available evidence

Confirmation Bias

only seeking information that supports your views

Analytical skills

The ability to provide logical support for your beliefs instead of having baseless opinions

Effective communication

the ability to speak, write, and listen well, and having awareness of different communication styles

Inquiry skills

ability to gather, evaluate, and compile evidence for the purposes of research

Flexibility

the ability to change ones mind or plans and be open to other ideas

Open minded skepticism

one only believes what can be proven, but keeps an open mind until then

Method of doubt

assume to be false anything that could possibly be doubted

Creative problem solving

the ability to come up with imaginative solutions to complex problems

3 tier model of critical thinking

Experience - one describes the experience/event without trying to explain why or how it happened

Interpretation - one tries to give an explanation of why or how the experience or event happened

Analysis - one reconsiders their previous interpretation to see if there is a better alternative explanation

Avoidance

avoiding people or information that conflict with your views

Anger

instead of analyzing an opposing view, one becomes angry with the person who presents the veiw

Cliches

overused one liner phrases “agree to disagree”

Denial

one simply denies alternative views instead of analyzing their merit

Ignorance

deliberately remaining uninformed in order to avoid taking an action or position

Conformity

Adopting the majority view in order to fit in and avoid standing out

Struggling

Endlessly debating what action or position to take and never reaching a conclusion resulting in inaction

Absolutism

lacking the ability to stand up to authority figures and always assuming they are absolutely correct

Egocentrism

thinking you are the center of everything, better and smarter than others and having low respect for others views

Ethnocentrism

the unjustified belief in the superiority if one’s race, group, or culture

Anthropocentrism

the belief that mankind is the center of everything, so animals and nature are of less value

Rationalization

acting without critical thought then trying to come up with a more rational sounding thought later

Double Think

believing two opposing things at once

Define Language

A system of communication that involves a set of symbols which can either be spoken, written, or non-verbal

Functions of language - Informative

to make statements that are either true or false

Functions of language - Directive

the use of imperatives to direct or influence actions

Functions of language - Expressive

communicates feelings or attitudes and is meant to bring about an emotional impact

Functions of language - Ceremonial

used in official/formal situations (ex: religious/court/work or emails/customer service/royalty)

Types of meaning - Denotative

Expresses essential attributes of something like an official dictionary definition

Types of meaning - Connotative

Based on past experience and associations. And can be either positive or negative

Types of definitions - Stipulative

Given to new terms that emerge in language

Types of definition - Theoretical

Used to explain the nature of scientific terms

Types of definition - Operational 

The use of a boundary or threshold in order to create standarization

Types of definition - Persuasive

used to get others to accept ones point of view

5 criteria for evaluating a definition

1. Neither too broad nor too narrow

2. states all essential attributes

3. Not circular (ex: a teacher is a person who teaches)

4. Avoids overly technical and obscure language

5. Avoids emotional language

The 5 rhetorical devices - Euphemism

the replacement of a term that has a negative association by a neutral or positive term

The 5 rhetorical devices - Dysphemism

a word or phrase chosen to produce a negative effect (replacing a positive or neutral term with a negative one in order to create disapproval)

The 5 rhetorical devices - Sarcasm

The use of irony, ridicule, insults, taunting to make light of something or deflect critical analysis

The 5 rhetorical devices - Hyperbole

the use of exaggeration or overstatement to distort the truth

The 5 rhetorical devices - Lie

a deliberate attempt to mislead without the prior consent of the target

4 communication styles - Aggresive

one wants to get their way at all cost even if this is harming their relationships

4 communication styles - Passive

one wants avoid confrontation at all costs, and backs down easily

4 communication styles - Assertive

one will say openly and honestly what they want or need, but knows where to back off to avoid damaging their relationship

4 communication styles - Passive agressive

One will not say openly and honestly what they want or need but indirect strategies of manipulation to their way

2 types of Deception - Active

Deliberately saying something false in order to mislead

2 types of deception - Passive

Withholding the truth

Define Knowledge

Information that we believe is true and for which we have justification

Justification

Having good evidence/reasons to support ones belief

Rationalism

Most human knowledge comes from reason, ideas, and abstract thought as opposed to sensory experience.

Empiricism

that most human knowledge comes from the five senses (observation)

What is evidence

something that can prove or disprove a  claim

Reliable sources of evidence - Direct evidence

seeing is believing (directly experiencing something) - could be inaccurate (psychotic episode or misinterpretation)

Reliable sources of evidence - Testimony

secondary source, someone else provided the evidence to you, spoken evidence could be passed down multiple people even generations. The person providing the evidence experienced direct evidence (could be lying)

Reliable sources of evidence - memory

your ability to recall direct evidence and testimony (memory is not perfect, we don’t remember everything because of the enormous amount of evidence we are taking in)

Reliable sources of evidence - Inference

looking for evidence that leads you to a conclusion. Reaching conclusions from facts other than direct observation. (could have overlapping or contradictory evidence)

Define false memory

when someone thinks that they have a memory of something that did not actually happen

2 unreliable sources of evidence - Hearsay

testimony that passes several people before you hear it

2 unreliable sources of evidence - Anecdote

Evidence that is only based on one person’s personal experience  (aka someone who is an outlier in an experience)

ex - you want your friend to stop smoking, he says his grandpa has smoked for 50 years and he’s fine

The 4 factors to consider about experts

1. Education (where their knowledge comes from)

2. Experience (time with hands on experience in the field)

3. Reputation (how are they perceived by others in their field, colleagues and peers)

4. Accomplishments

C. R. A. A. P. Test

Currency. Relevance. Accuracy. Authority. Purpose. in relation to a piece of evidence

Research Sources

Internet

Library

Academic/Scholarly Journals

Government Documents

Expert interviews

Dictionary/Encylopedia

War of the World Radio Broadcast

A famous radio broadcast by Orson Welles on October 30, 1938, which dramatized H.G. Wells' "The War of the Worlds," causing widespread panic among listeners who believed the fictional events were real.

Memorable events error

placing more importance on an event than it deserves just because the event is uncommon (plane crash is scarier than a car crash even though car accidents happen at a much higher rate in comparison to relative plane flights/crashes)

The misperception of random data

someone believes/thinks they see order or patterns in a structure that is actually random

Probability errors

when we miscalculate the probability of an event by a significant margin

Self fulfilling prophecy

when your expectation of an event ends up causing the event to happen

One of us vs. One of them

dividing people into groups of “us” and “them” and showing less respect to “them”

Diffusion of responsibility

in a group setting, no individual feels personally responsible to take an action, so no action gets taken

Who is Kitty Genovese

A murder victim whose case highlighted the bystander effect, where witnesses fail to intervene during an emergency.

Asch experiment

A series of studies conducted in the 1950s to demonstrate the influence of group pressure on individual decision-making and conformity. The experiment involved participants being placed in a group with actors who provided incorrect answers to simple questions, revealing how individuals often conform to group norms even when they conflict with their own perceptions.

Milgram Experiment

A series of psychological experiments conducted in the 1960s by Stanley Milgram to study obedience to authority figures. Participants were instructed to administer electric shocks to a learner, demonstrating the extent to which people comply with orders that conflict with their personal conscience.

Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo)

A psychological study conducted in 1971 by Philip Zimbardo to investigate the psychological effects of perceived power and authority. Participants were assigned roles as guards or prisoners in a simulated prison environment, leading to extreme behavior and ethical concerns.