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Critical thinking
doesn’t automatically accept arguments/conclusions, healthy skepticism
Hindsight bias
after learning the outcome, thinking that you knew what it was going to be
Peer reviewers
other scientists that evaluate work, part of the scientific method
Theory
explains behaviors by offering ideas that organize observations, can bias hypotheses
Hypotheses
testable prediction, implied by theory
Falsifiability
possibility that something can be disproven, marks scientific strength for a hypothesis
Operational definitions
a statement of the exact procedures taken during a study
Case study
examines one example in order to find universal principles
Naturalistic observation
non-experimental, recording behavior in natural environments
Survey
a non-experimental technique for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group
Social desirability bias
bias from people responding in ways presumed to meet researcher expectations
Self-report bias
bias when people report their behavior inaccurately
Sampling bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
Random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population, each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Population
all those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn
Representative sample
a smaller subset of a larger group that accurately reflects specific characteristics
Correlate
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and predict each other
Correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00
Variables
anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure
Scatterplots
a graphed cluster of dots representing values of two variables, indicating relationship strength
Illusory correlation
perceiving a relationship where none exists or thinking they relate more than they do
Regression toward the mean
tendency for extreme results to regress towards the mean
Experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe effects
Experimental group
group that receives the treatment in an experiment
Control group
group that doesn’t receive treatment for comparison with the experimental group
Random assignment
assigning participants to different groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences
Correlational studies
uncover relationships, complemented by experiments that manipulate factors
Independent variable
the factor that is manipulated in an experiment
Dependent variable
the outcome that is measured in an experiment
Single blind procedure
participants are unaware of whether they received treatment or placebo
Double blind procedure
both participants and research staff are unaware of treatment or placebo
Placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone, due to administration of an inert substance
Confounding variables
other factors that can influence a study’s results
Experimenter bias
when researchers unintentionally change results to confirm their beliefs
Validity
the extent to which an experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Quantitative research
methods that use numerical data to represent degrees of a variable
Qualitative research
methods that use in-depth, narrative data
Informed consent
providing enough information for individuals to decide on participation
Debrief
post-experimental explanation of a study, including purpose and deceptions
Descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups
Histogram
a bar graph representing data
Mode
the most frequently occurring score in a data set
Mean
arithmetic average of a data set
Median
the middle score in a distribution
Percentile rank
the percentage of scores lower than a given score
Skewed distribution
data that is not symmetrical around the average
Range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard deviation
a measure of how much scores vary around the mean
Normal curve
symmetrical, bell-shaped curve describing the distribution of data
Inferential statistics
numerical data that allows application of probability from a sample to a population
Meta-analysis
statistical procedure for analyzing many studies to reach a conclusion
Statistical significance
how likely a result occurred by chance
Effect size
the strength of the relationship between two variables.
Note
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