AP Psych Unit 0

Critical thinking

doesn’t automatically accept arguments/conclusions, healthy skepticism

Hindsight bias

after learning the outcome, thinking that you knew what it was going to be

Peer reviewers

other scientists that evaluate work, part of the scientific method

Theory

explains behaviors by offering ideas that organize observations, can bias hypotheses

Hypotheses

testable prediction, implied by theory

Falsifiability

possibility that something can be disproven, marks scientific strength for a hypothesis

Operational definitions

a statement of the exact procedures taken during a study

Case study

examines one example in order to find universal principles

Naturalistic observation

non-experimental, recording behavior in natural environments

Survey

a non-experimental technique for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group

Social desirability bias

bias from people responding in ways presumed to meet researcher expectations

Self-report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

Sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population, each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn

Representative sample

a smaller subset of a larger group that accurately reflects specific characteristics

Correlate

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and predict each other

Correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00

Variables

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

Scatterplots

a graphed cluster of dots representing values of two variables, indicating relationship strength

Illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists or thinking they relate more than they do

Regression toward the mean

tendency for extreme results to regress towards the mean

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe effects

Experimental group

group that receives the treatment in an experiment

Control group

group that doesn’t receive treatment for comparison with the experimental group

Random assignment

assigning participants to different groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences

Correlational studies

uncover relationships, complemented by experiments that manipulate factors

Independent variable

the factor that is manipulated in an experiment

Dependent variable

the outcome that is measured in an experiment

Single blind procedure

participants are unaware of whether they received treatment or placebo

Double blind procedure

both participants and research staff are unaware of treatment or placebo

Placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone, due to administration of an inert substance

Confounding variables

other factors that can influence a study’s results

Experimenter bias

when researchers unintentionally change results to confirm their beliefs

Validity

the extent to which an experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Quantitative research

methods that use numerical data to represent degrees of a variable

Qualitative research

methods that use in-depth, narrative data

Informed consent

providing enough information for individuals to decide on participation

Debrief

post-experimental explanation of a study, including purpose and deceptions

Descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups

Histogram

a bar graph representing data

Mode

the most frequently occurring score in a data set

Mean

arithmetic average of a data set

Median

the middle score in a distribution

Percentile rank

the percentage of scores lower than a given score

Skewed distribution

data that is not symmetrical around the average

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard deviation

a measure of how much scores vary around the mean

Normal curve

symmetrical, bell-shaped curve describing the distribution of data

Inferential statistics

numerical data that allows application of probability from a sample to a population

Meta-analysis

statistical procedure for analyzing many studies to reach a conclusion

Statistical significance

how likely a result occurred by chance

Effect size

the strength of the relationship between two variables.