AP Biology Functional Groups and Macromolecules

Isomers

Two different molecules that have the same chemical formula but different arrangements of atom

Geometric Isomers

Isomers that share the same covalent bonds but differ in their spatial arrangements.

Structural Isomers

Isomers that differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms.

Enantiomers

Isomers that are mirror images of each other.

Hydroxyl Group

A hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom. Organic compounds with hydroxyl groups are alcohols.

Carbonyl Group

A functional group consisting of a carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen. If it is at the end of the carbon skeleton

Carboxyl Group

A functional group consisting of a carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen and single bonded to the oxygen of a hydroxyl group.

Amino Group

A functional group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms and to the carbon skeleton. Organic compounds with this group are called amines.

Sulfhydryl Group

A functional group consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom. It helps stabilize the structure of proteins.

Phosphate Group

A chemical group consisting of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms. Organic phosphates are important in cellular energy transfer such as ATP.

Monomer

The subunit of a polymer.

Polymer

A large molecule consisting of many subunits.

Macromolecule

A large organic polymer.

Condensation Reaction

A reaction in which monomers are bonded together and a water molecule is produced. Also called dehydration synthesis.

Hydrolysis

A reaction in which covalent bonds are broken through the addition of water.

Carbohydrates

Organic molecules made up of sugars. They include monosaccharides

Monosaccharides

Simple sugars that store energy in chemical bonds that can be harvested through cellular respiration. Glucose is the most common example.

Disaccharides

A double sugar consisting of two monosaccharides.

Glycosidic Linkage

A covalent bond formed by a condensation reaction between two sugar molecules.

Polysaccharide

Macromolecules that are polymers made of hundreds or thousands of monosaccharides. They are used for energy storage and structural support.

Starch

A glucose polymer found in plants that functions as a storage polysaccharide.

Glycogen

A glucose polymer stored as a polysaccharide in animals that functions as a storage polysaccharide.

Cellulose

A major structural component of plant cell walls and a structural polysaccharide.

Chitin

A structural polysaccharide that forms the exoskeletons of arthropods.

Lipids

Organic molecules that are insoluble in water but dissolve in nonpolar solvents. Examples include fats

Fats

Macromolecules constructed from glycerol and fatty acids.

Ester Linkage

A bond formed between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group.

Triglyceride

A fat with three fatty acid tails bonded to one glycerol molecule by ester linkages.

Phospholipids

Molecules made of glycerol

Steroids

Lipids that have four fused carbon rings with various functional groups attached. Cholesterol is an important example.

Polypeptide Chains

Polymers of amino acids arranged in a specific linear sequence and linked together by peptide bonds.

Protein

A macromolecule consisting of one or more polypeptide chains folded into specific conformations.

Amino Acids

The monomers that make up proteins.

Peptide Bonds

A covalent bond formed by a condensation reaction that links the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of another amino acid.

Primary Structure

The level of protein structure determined by genes. A slight change in this structure can affect a protein's conformation and function.

Secondary Structure

The repeating and coiling of a protein's polypeptide backbone

Alpha Helix

A helical coil in a protein stabilized by hydrogen bonds between every fourth peptide bond.

Beta Pleated Sheet

A sheet of antiparallel polypeptide chains folded into accordion-like pleats and held together by hydrogen bonds between adjacent polypeptides.

Tertiary Structure

The irregular contortions of a protein caused by bonding between side chains.

Weak Interactions

Weak interactions in proteins

Covalent Linkage

Covalent bonds called disulfide bridges that form between two cysteine monomers when a protein folds.

Quaternary Structure

The level of protein structure resulting from interactions among several polypeptide chains.

Collagen

A protein found in animal connective tissue.

Hemoglobin

An iron-containing protein and pigment found in blood. Carries oxygen in animal cells

Denaturation

The process in which a protein's structure unravels or loses its normal shape due to changes in temperature or pH.

Nucleotides

Basic building blocks for nucleic acids (DNA & RNA)

DNA

A nucleic acid containing adenine

RNA

Single strand that turn genetic codes from DNA into proteins.

Aldehyde

A carbonyl group located at the end of a carbon skeleton and bonded to atleast one hydrogen

Ketone

A carbonyl group located in the center of a carbon skeleton and bonded to 2 other Carbons