English Language

purpose of slang

¡Creating and maintaining a sense of personal or group identity

¡Rejecting conventional values and words

¡Fitting in and conforming to how your friends speak

¡Adopting the speech patterns of people you’d like to be friends with

Conversational strategies

¡Topic Management

¡Turn-Taking

¡Demonstrating Engagement

purpose of slang

¡Creating and maintaining a sense of personal or group identity

¡Rejecting conventional values and words

¡Fitting in and conforming to how your friends speak

¡Adopting the speech patterns of people you’d like to be friends with

Conversational strategies

¡Topic Management

¡Turn-Taking

¡Demonstrating Engagement

face threatening acts

The negative face is threatened by...

  …acts that appear to impede the addressee´s independence of movement and freedom of action

The positive face is threatened by…

  …acts which appear as disapproving of their wants

Morphological patterning

¡Shortenings: The shortening of a word, generally accompanied by affixation of a vowel sound

¡Blends: The combination of two new words to make a new one

¡Initialisms: The use of the first letter of words represent a phrase

¡Acronyms: The use of the first letter of words to represent a phrase BUT pronounced as a word

¡Compounds: The combination of two free morphemes to create a new word

¡Conversion:  Changing one word class to another, often through affixation

syntactic patterning

• parallelism

• antithesis

• listing

Affixation

The process of combining a root and an affix, which can be a prefix, infix or suffix.

e.g: PREFIX: untrue, dislocate

INFIX: absobloodylutely

SUFFIX: friendly, faithless

Blending

The process of word formation in which parts of two independent words are combined to create a new word.

MALWARE: malicious + software

SMOG: smoke + fog

Borrowing

The process of acquiring new words or grammatical features from another language.

ARABIC: giraffe, lute

SPANISH: cargo, cigar

ITALIAN: latte

Collocation

The tendency for some words to occur in close association with each other. As they are mostly well known, it is predictable which aids in the cohesion

e.g: hard-earned money, fast food

hypernym

The label given to the overarching topic

Commonisation

replace technical or generic terms with brand-based words that are widely understood. can lower formality

e.g: ‘google it’, (conducting an online research) Band Aid (sticking plaster)

Compounding

The creation of a new word by combining two words that already exist.

e.g. Mouthwash (mouth + wash), Carport (car + port)

Contraction

A reduced form of one or more words in which the first and last letters remain the same, but some of the letters in the middle have been removed.

e.g: can't, won't, didn't, it's

Neologism

The creation of a new word or expression to fill a gap. They are newly coined terms, words, or phrases, that may be commonly used in everyday life but have yet to be formally accepted as constituting mainstream language. It represent the evolving nature of the English language.

e.g: tweeting (to post on Twitter)

Alliteration

The use of the same consonant sounds in consecutive words, or in close succession.

e.g: Wonderful winter wonderland. It Functions too create a musical effect in the text that enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. It makes reading and recitation of the poems attractive and appealing; thus, making them easier to learn by heart.

Assonance

The repetition of identical vowel sounds in the stressed syllables of successive words, or in a series of words. Used as a tool to enhance a musical effect in the text by using it for creating internal rhyme

e.g: "No pay, no play"

Consonance

The repetition of identical consonant sounds, especially in the first syllables of successive words, or in a series of words.

e.g: "A stroke of luck", "Beanz Meanz Heinz", "Odds and ends"

Rhyme

A type of phonological patterning in which a word agrees with another in the part of the first syllable of the central peak and any consonants which follow the peak.

e.g: "Bright light", "Apples and pears = stairs"

Rhythm

The flow of words produced by patterns of stress placement and tempo.

e.g: "Two households both alike in dignity"

Antithesis

The juxtaposition of contrasting words or ideas that are similarly structured and used to show different ideas.

e.g:

"Big on comfort, small on price"

"If he wins, you lose"

Apposition

A relation between two nouns or noun phrases which describe the same thing. One of the phrases is a modifier of the other.

e.g: "Mr Smith, the local locksmith, was already there when we arrived:

Ellipsis

The omission of a word or phrase necessary for a complete syntactical construction but not necessary for understanding because the meaning can be gauged from the context.

e.g:

"I went to school, but my friend didn't [go to school]"

"[Are you] coming to the party?"

Front Focus

Movement of a clause element other than the subject to the beginning of a sentence.

e.g: Very slowly, John walked up the street.

End Focus

Movement of new or important information at the end of a sentence to highlight or emphasise it.

e.g: They are excellent students, the Year 12s.

Nominalisation

Forming a noun or noun phrase from some other part of speech, most usually a verb. Also includes the formation of a noun phrase from a whole clause.

e.g:

Verb to Noun: "We walked for charity" becomes "The charity walk"

Clause to Noun Phrase: "France invaded England in 1066" becomes "France's invasion of England in 1066"

Anaphoric referencing

The use of pronouns (or other lexical items) which refer back to something already mentioned in the text.

e.g: "The fish was fresh, so it tasted delicious"

"Tim bought a PS4 after he got his pay"

Cataphoric referencing

The use of pronouns (or other lexical items) which refers to something that hasn't been mentioned until latger on in the text.

e.g: "The sisters thought she was ugly, but Prince Charming thought Cinderella was beautiful"

Substitution

The replacement of one linguistic term by another, often in the following clause. Functions too be the r eplacement of a word or phrase with a filler word to avoid repetition.

e.g: I've lost my pencil. Do you have one?

Personification

A type of figurative language in which non-human things are given human qualities (e.g emotions, desires, expressions, etc).

e.g: The wind howled.

Connotation

The idea or meaning associated with a word or thing.

e.g:

Mother: caring (positive), excessive concern (negative)

Hollywood: success (positive), cheap and tacky (negative)

Denotation

The literal meaning of a word, its dictionary definition.

Euphemism

The substitution of a mild, indirect or vague term for one that is considered harsh, blunt or offensive.

e.g: "pass away" instead of "die"

Dysphemism

The substitution of a disagreeable, offensive word for an otherwise inoffensive term.

e.g: "pig" for policeman

Hyperbole

effectively draws the attention to a message that you want to emphasis. e.g.

I was so hungry, I could eat an elephant.

I have told you a thousand times.

Idiom

An expression that means something other than the literal meanings of its individual words. meaning cannot be inferred from words

e.g: "Raining cats and dogs"

"Keeping an eye on things"

Lexical ambiguity

When a lexical item can be interpreted with more than one meaning.

"The teacher raved about his students" - is the teacher raving because he is angry or happy?

Elision

When a sound is omitted, to make speech easier

e.g: 'cos, goin', 'ere, 'n

Flapping

Occurs when "d" sounds replaces "t" sound in certain words.

e.g. "budder" for butter, "pardy" for party

Insertion

When a sound is introduced between other sounds, often in the middle of a word.

e.g: drawing (drawring), insertion of ‘r’ sound

Sharp breath

Breath intake in spoken communication that is associated with enthusiasm, shock or surprise.

Slow breathing

Type of breathing in spoken language that can act as a floor-holding technique or as a means of conveying calmness or reserve.

stress

Feature of spoken language used to highlight and/or strengthen a point being made by the speaker. Type of stress that ensures audience is focused on the central theme/issue. Usually finished of by an exclamation mark. Commonly has "really" and "very much" in it.

Rising intonation

Intonation that suggests that there is more to follow. More frequent use is referred to as High Rising Terminal (HRT).

Falling intonation

Intonation that implies a sense of finality, helping the audience recognise the end of an utterance.

Tempo

Speed of speaking. Fast speed usually means that the speaker is excited or upset, whereas a slow speed means that the speaker is tired or choosing their words more carefully. Acts as a floor-holding strategy.

Adjacency pair

Two-part exchanges that follow a predictable pattern and have close association with each other. e.g. How are you? = yeah Im good

Minimal response

Short responses by the audience in a spoken interaction to indicate they are actively listening by offering support, encouragement or acknowledgement. These can take the form of the words such as 'yeah', 'ok', 'right' or sounds like 'hmm', 'ahh' or 'oh'. Also known as backchanneling.

Discourse particle

Words or small expressions that are used in a text to communicate to the audience information such as changes of topic or scene. turn-taking, personal attitudes and other nuances of meaning. Examples include well, yep, you, know, sort of, like and I mean.

False start

When a speaker, having already begun an utterance, hesitates or changes his or her mind about what they want to say. This often takes the form of changing from one grammatical construction to another one before the initial construction has been completed.

e.g: "I drove my- (.) I took the Camry to work"

Formulaic expression

When language follows a set pattern. Most frequently employed at the beginning and end of conversations to clearly signal the intention of the speaker and avoid ambiguity.

e.g: "Welcome to AAMI. This is John speaking. How may I help you?

"Do you have fly-buys? Any cash out?"

Hedging expression

A word or phrase that makes a statement less forceful or assertive. Avoid a definite commitment on the speaker's part, which may be advantageous in certain circumstances. Common examples include: 'perhaps, 'hopefully', 'probably', 'approximately' and 'maybe',

Tag question

A grammatical structure in which a declarative statement or imperative is turned into a question by the addition of an interrogative tag, which is always separated by a comma. Its often used for checking information that we think we know is true.

e.g:

"There isn't training after school today, is there?"

"Take care, won't you?"

Paralinguistic features

Non-verbal communications used in conjunction with spoken communication. Often referred to as 'body language'. Include:

Gestures - hand movements, clapping, pointing

Posture - upright, inward, outward

Facial Expressions - smiling, frowning, winking, nodding

Pause filler

Expressions such as 'um' and 'err' that are used by a speaker to indicate that a turn has not finished, even though he or she may have briefly stopped speaking. Allow a speaker some thinking time in order to plan what he or she will say next. Indicates a desire to retain the floor, which is subconsciously understood by the audience.

Phatic communication

Technical term for small talk or social chit-chat. Play an important role in establishing, maintaining social relationships and building rapport.

Politeness marker

Expressions that are used to show courtesy and respect towards others, and to mark social status and/or social distance. Common expressions include 'please' and 'thank you'.

Vocative

Type of lexeme used by the speaker to name or refer to someone else when talking to them. Has two functions:

To call someone in order to gain their attention ("John, it's time to go to school") or to address someone, expressing particular social relationships or attitudes ("Waiter, my soup is cold").

Common terms: Mr, Ms, Mrs, Sir, Madam, etc.

Types of colloquial language

¡Shortenings – cos, yep

¡Diminutives – ‘servo’ ‘arvo’

¡Assimilated and blended lexemes – ‘gonna’ ‘dunno’

¡Words with connotative meanings (rather than the denotative) – ‘reckon’ ‘slab’ (broadly culturally understood)

¡Frequently used metaphorical expressions or idioms

Clause

Consists of a subject-verb combination. Subject can be a noun, pronoun or phrase. Two types; Independant and dependant

Simple sentence

Sentence that contains only one independent clause.

compound setentence

Two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.
e.g. She loves linguistics, but she finds phonetics difficult.

complex

Contains one independent clause and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses.

compound-complex

Two or More Independent Clauses + At Least One Dependent Clause.

Inference

Use of knowledge brought to the text by the reader that isn't expressed explicitly within it.

Coherence

The semantic connections that exist within a text to make it meaningful/make sense. Bold headings, Sub-headings, implied sub-headings, conventions, inference, logical development of ideas, listing, dot-points, markers, parenthesis, spelling, punctuation, subject-specific lexis.

Cohesion

The linguistic connections and ties that exist between the words and sentences to give structure to a text.

Anaphoric/Cataphoric referencing, deictic words, antonyms, synonyms, hyponyms, hypernyms, collocation, conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, adverbials, ellipsis, repetition, subject-specific lexis, substitution.

Non-fluency features

Include false starts, interruptions, self corrections, repetitions, hesitations, fillers and voiced hesitations.

Declarative

Sentence type where a statement is made.

Imperative

Sentence type where a directive is issued.

Interrogative

Sentence type where a question is asked.

Exclamative

Sentence type where an exclamation is expressed.

Clefting

A construction in which some element in a sentence is moved from its normal position into a separate clause to give it greater emphasis. Also known as a cleft sentence, a cleft construction, and a cleft clause. e.g.

It was DI who read a poem in the cafe last night.

It was A POEM that Di read in the cafe last night.

It was IN THE CAFE that Di read a poem last night.

It was LAST NIGHT that Di read a poem in the cafe.

Accent

A characteristic way of pronouncing a language or variety that is identified with national, regional, social or ethnic background. Sometimes confused with 'dialect'.

Active Voice

uses the present tense form of a verb and is direct eg. Everyone deserves a break

Agentless passive

A passive without an agent or doer of the action. May be used because the speaker does not know who the agent is, thinks it unimportant to specify the agent, or wants to avoid specifying the agent. e.g.

All the chocolate was eaten

Archaism (Lexicology)

A word or construction that is no longer used from earlier phrases of a language . e.g: aforementioned, hitherto.

Auxiliary verbs

Type of verb that is used to help the main verbs of a clause too indicate the different tenses, moods, or voices. They are: be, do, have, will, shall, would, should, can, could, may, might, must, ought etc. I was running.

Covert prestige

The linguistic features that are valued by a sub-group within a community, usually associated with non-standard language. e.g: surfers, bikers, gangstaz.

Creole

A nativised pidgin, a pidgin language that has become the mother tongue of a speech community.

Diminutive

A suffix added to a common or proper noun that indicates smallness and usually expressed affection (sometimes dismissal). Very common in Australian English. e.g: Tassie, Salvo.

Discourse

Sequences of language that are larger than a sentence.

Doublespeak (Semantics)

Deliberately used Language that distorts phrases/speech with an intent of misleading or deceiving the listener. Similar too euphemism however it has different intents e.g.

"sanitary techninician' is said instead of garbage man

Etymology

The study of the origins and history of words.

positive politeness strategies

• emphasising similarities

• showing interest

• using humour

• offering compliments

• inclusive language

negative politeness strategies

• hedging

• indirect and ambiguous (eg. remember that school incident’)

• low modality verbs

• apologising

• other mitigating strategies

Face

One's public self-image.

Positive face

Shows closeness, intimacy, solidarity and rapport. Notices or attends to the other person's wants, needs or possessions. Intensifies one's interest, approval or sympathy of the speaker. e.g. That's a nice suit, where did you get it from?

Negative face

a person's need to be independent and not be imposed on by others. Gives the other person choices, allowing them to maintain their freedom e.g. You couldn't possibly tell me the time, please?

Figurative language

Language that is used in a non-literal way in order to invoke revealing comparisons. Includes metaphors, similes and oxymorons.

Function words (Lecixology)

Words that have purely grammatical meaning and do not refer to anything in the real word; e.g: the, to, by.

Content words

Words that have real world meaning; e.g: table, leg, man.

Intensifier

A word or phrase that adds emphasis or colour; e.g: very, awfully, terribly.

Interlocuter

The people involved in a communication.

Jargon

Language shared by those who belong to a profession, trade or some other occupational group. Has two distinct functions:

1. To serve as a technical or specialist language (for precise and economical communication).

2. To promote in-group solidarity.

Left-dislocation

A way of focusing a constituent without changing the grammatical functions. Simply moving the constituent to the extreme left of a sentence.

e.g: Ice cream, I just love it.

Lexicon

The official term for words that make up the vocbuary of a language.

Modal auxiliary

The type of verbs such as; can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might and must, that signal the attitude of the speaker and express notions such as probability, possibility, doubt, contingency, wishing and so on.

Morpheme

The smallest meaningful unit of grammar in a language.

Orthography

Typographical elements such as bolding, italics, underlining, hyphenation, capitalisation and of course, punctuation (quotation marks, parentheses, punctuation marks) can reduce the register of the text

Right-dislocation

Involves moving something to the end of a sentence and leaving behind a pronoun copy.