Chapter 11- Appraising sampling and data collection in qualitative studies

Sampling in qualitative research

• Who would be an information-rich data source? When should I talk to or what should I observe to maximize my understanding?

• emerge to whom can I talk to observe that would confirm, challenge, or Rich my understanding?

Types

• avoid random samples

• volunteer sample (convenience)

• Snowball sampling (network sampling)

volunteer sample (convenience)

When researchers allow participants to come forward and identify themselves

Snowball sampling (network sampling)

asking early informants to make referrals

•  May restrict sample

*purposive sampling

• researchers deliberately choose the cases or type of cases that will best contribute to the study

• sampling confirming and disconfirming cases

  • To test data saturation

maximum variation sampling

involves deliberately selecting cases with a range of variation on dimensions of Interest

Extreme case sampling

opportunities for learning from the most unusual and extreme informants

typical case sampling

selection of participants who illustrate are highly what is typical or average

Criterion sampling

studying cases that meet a predetermined Criterion of importance

Confirming cases

additional cases that fit researchers conceptualization and strength and credibility

Disconfirming cases

new cases that do not fit and serve to challenge researchers interpretations

Theoretical sampling

involves decisions about where to find data to develop an emerging Theory

•  Grounded theory studies

sample size

• data saturation: sampling until no new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved

  •  data quality can affect the number of participants to achieve

Sampling in Ethnography

• Entree (mingling) → big net approach (infomral convos) → (interviews) possible key informants

• key informants: knowledgeable about the culture and serve as researchers main link to the inside

  •  help decide what to sample

•  sampling things as well as people (events, activities, records, artifacts, places)

Sampling in phenomenological

• Small sample(<10)

• all participants must have experienced the phenomenon, and they must be able to articulate what it is like or to have lived that experience 

• want people with demographic or other differences who have shared a common experience

Sampling in  grounded Theory

• theoretical sampling

• Participants are selected serially in contingently

•  often convenient sampling →  maximum variation sampling →  emerging conceptualizations in form theoretical sampling process →  collection until data saturation →  final sampling for confirming and disconfirtbming cases

table of sampling in each tradition

critically appraising samples

• Adequacy

• Appropriateness

• Transferability

Adequacy

the sufficiency and  quality of the data the sample yielded

•  truly obtain saturation, informational adequacy, and richly textured and complete description or Theory

Transferability

similarity between study sample and other people whom the findings might be applied

Appropriateness

the methods used to select a sample was appropriate to select participants who can best supply information that meets the conceptual requirements

data collection 

• In-depth interviews are most common

  • also observation 

•  self report techniques

In-depth interviews

• to understand the behaviors and experiences of people as they occur in a naturalistic setting

• physical setting, participants, activities, frequency and duration, process, and outcomes are all relevant

• Direct observation

participant observation

take part in the functioning of the group under study and strive to observe, ask questions, and record information within the context and structures that are relevant to group members

• may assume a fixed position throughout study but often evolves toward increasing participation over course

• must gain entree And establish Rapport and trust with group

Log

• a field diary  Daily Record  of events and conversation

field notes

broader and more interpretive,  represent observer's efforts to record information and synthesize and understand the data

•  descriptive or reflective 

self report techniques

• unstructured interviews

• semi-structured interviews

• focus group interviews

• personal Diaries

• photo elicitation

unstructured interviews

no preconceived view of the information being gathered

• Totally flexible

• Grand tour questions

semi-structured interviews

researchers have a list of topics or broad questions that must be covered in a interview

• use written topic guide to ensure all question areas are addressed

focus group interviews

5 to 10 people whose opinions and experiences are still listed simultaneously

• Led by moderator

• issue: Domination, social influence

personal Diaries

Provide intimate description of a person's everyday life

•  can be structured or unstructured

photo elicitation

involves an interview Guided by photographic images

•  photo voice:  technique of asking participants to take photographs themselves and then interpret them

Observation data that must be collected

• The physical setting 

• The participants 

• Activities 

• Frequency and duration 

• Process 

• Outcomes