AOS 2 Brain

What are the key areas of the forebrain

The forebrain holds the cerebral cortex, hypothalamus and thalamus

What are the key areas of the midbrain

Reticular formation (sends info to the right part of the brain)

What are the key areas of the hindbrain

Medulla, brain stem and cerebellum

What is the role of the midbrain

Movement, processing of visual, auditory and tactile sensory information, sleep and arousal

What are the lobes of the brain with primary areas

F.P.O.T.

Frontal lobe- primary motor cortex

Parietal lobe- primary somatosensory cortex

Occipital lobe- primary visual cortex

Temporal lobe- primary auditory cortex

What’s the association cortex for the occipital lobe

The visual association area/cortex

What is the role of the primary cortex of the frontal lobe

The primary motor cortex is responsible for initiating voluntary movement

What is the role of the primary cortex of the parietal lobe

The primary somatosensory cortex is responsible for receiving and processing touch, temperature, pressure, somatic

What is the role of the primary cortex of the Temporal lobe

Processes auditory information

Uses hemisphere specialisation for the sounds:

Right: processes nonverbal sounds like bells and sirens

Left: processes sounds associated with language

What is the role of the primary cortex of the Occipital

respond to specific features of visual information. Collateral organisation

What does the association cortex do in the frontal lobe

Planning, problem solving, thinking, Memory, Language, Learning, Analysing, emotional behaviour, Personality/Changing personality.

What does the association cortex do in the parietal lobe

Right Parietal: Perceive 3D shapes and designs & drawing a picture of objects

Spatial awareness and location of objects in the environment

Left Parietal: Helps to integrate reading, writing and mental arithmetic

What does the association cortex do in the Occipital lobe

Recognizing faces (facial recognition)

Identifying objects

Interpreting motion and depth

Linking visual info to memories (e.g., “That’s my dog” instead of just “a brown shape”)

What does the association cortex do in the Temporal lobe

Understands what the sounds mean (like speech, music, or a familiar voice).

What is the role of the medulla

The medulla controls automatic bodily functions like heartbeat, breathing and other vital bodily functions

What is the role of the Cerebellum

The cerebellum otherwise known as the mini brain coordinates movement and balance. Balance and posture, coordination, motor learning, timing and rhythm, fine muscle control etc

What is the role of the Pons

The pons controls movement, breathing, sleeping, dreams and walking

What is the role of the Brainstem

The brainstem regulates reflex and survival responses.

What is the role of the hypothalamus

The hypothalamus regulates emotions and instinctive drives (Hunger, thirst, need to sleep, fight or flight, reproduction)

What is the role of the cerebral cortex

The cerebral cortex is the thin outer layer of the brain often called gray matter. It is responsible for higher mental processes and complex behaviours (the higher level functioning of all lobes)

What is the role of the Corpus callosum

The corpus callosum connects both the left and right hemispheres of the brain and sends the signals between them

What is the cerebrum

The four lobes

What is the role of the Hippocampus

The hippocampus specialises in long-term memory and spatial orientation and memory of those places

What is the role of the Amygdala

Responsible for aggression and fear, emotional memory

What is the role of the Spinal cord

The spinal cord relays information from the brain to the rest of the body, and some simple reflexes

What is the role of the Midbrain

The mid brain coordinates movement, sleep and arousal

What is reticular formation

Reticular formation, in the mid brain, is network of neurons that regulates alertness and modifies muscle movements; extends into hindbrain and links upper and lower areas

What is plasticity

plasticity otherwise known as neuroplasticity refers to the way the brain changes in response to its environment.​

The process of plasticity occurs at the synaptic connections for the brain and is necessary for a person’s learning to take place.​

What is Experience-Expectant learning/plasticity

DEVELOPMENTAL/NEW brain change in response to environmental influence that is ordinarily expected.​

It occurs during developmental stages​

Is described as ‘species wide’ as all species have the same experience​

Example: exposure to light and patterns for humans in early life develops the visual cortex​

Has a sensitive/critical period​

*it is expected to happen!*

What is Experience-Dependent learning/plasticity

ADAPTIVE/CHANGE changes in the brain that modifies neuronal structure that is already present​

Depends on exposure to environmental experiences ​

No sensitive or critical period​

Example: London Taxi Drivers, throught their extreme training, have more developed Hippocampus structures (responsive for spatial navigation) ​

​

When do you have the most plasticity and why?

You have the most brain plasticity (neuroplasticity) during early childhood, especially from birth to around age 5|This high level of plasticity is due to factors such as rapid brain growth, less specialization, and the high learning demands placed on children as they interact with their environment.

What is Sprouting

GROWING Sprouting is the ability of dendrites or axons to develop new extensions or branches ​

1. dendritic branching ​

2. Filigree appendages (axon growth)​

What is Rerouting

the ability of a neuron that is connected to a damaged neuron to create an alternative synaptic connection with an undamaged neuron​

What is pruning

the elimination of synaptic connections (dendrites) that are not adequately activated ​(The connections are still there but some dendrites drop therefore making the connection weaker and the pathway harder to access)

What are some things that impact plasticity

🔼 Increases Plasticity	🔽 Decreases Plasticity
Learning new things	Chronic stress
Repetition & regular practice	Poor sleep
Physical exercise (especially cardio)	Lack of physical activity
Good sleep	Boredom or no mental stimulation
Healthy diet (omega-3s, vitamins)	Poor diet (junk food, low nutrients)
Positive social interaction	Isolation or loneliness
Challenging your brain (puzzles, new skills)	Doing the same easy tasks repeatedly
Young age	Aging (natural decline over time)

Think of plasticity like a muscle—you can train it, but you also have to take care of it.

Want me to turn this into a simple table or chart?

What does ABI stand for

Acquired brain injury

What does CTE stand for

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy

What is an ABI

any type of brain damage or disorder after birth that impairs or interferes with normal functioning of the brain, either temporarily or permanently.

May include (but not limited to): ​

• Sporting accidents​

• Falls​

• Blows to the head​

• Brain Inflammation​

• Epilepsy​

• Degenerative Brain Disorders: Dementia, Alzheimers Disease, Parkinson’s Disease, Motor Neurone Disease​

• Brain cancer

Examples: Phineas Gage, Aphasia,​

What are some biopsychosocial factors that are effected by an ABI

🧠 Biopsychosocial Factors Affected by ABI

🔴 Biological	🔵 Psychological	🟢 Social
🔴 Motor impairments (e.g. weakness, paralysis)	🔵 Memory loss or difficulty concentrating	🟢 Strained relationships (family, friends)
🔴 Fatigue and sleep problems	🔵 Mood swings or emotional instability	🟢 Loss of employment or school participation
🔴 Seizures or headaches	🔵 Depression and anxiety	🟢 Social isolation or withdrawal
🔴 Speech or language difficulties	🔵 Poor self-awareness or impulse control	🟢 Reduced independence (relying on caregivers)
🔴 Sensory changes (hearing, vision, etc.)	🔵 Personality changes	🟢 Difficulty communicating in social settings
🔴 Hormonal changes (due to brain damage)	🔵 Low motivation or apathy	🟢 Changes in family dynamics or roles

What does contemporary research refer to

Contemporary research refers to recent or current scientific studies and findings — usually from the last 10–15 years, but often even more recent.

It focuses on:

• Up-to-date methods and technologies

• Modern theories and perspectives

• Real-world relevance in today’s context

For example, in brain science, contemporary research might study neuroplasticity, brain-computer interfaces, or new rehab methods after ABI.

What is CTE

CTE is a progressive and fatal and degenerative brain disease associated with repeated traumatic brain injuries like concussions and repeated blows to the head. It is also associated with the development of dementia/has very similar symptoms

What are symptoms of CTE

Symptoms vary from person to person person but they can have rehabilitating and life changing effects

• Loss of memory​

• Mood changes​

• Personality changes​

• Difficulty in controlling impulsive or erratic behaviour​

• Increasing confusion or disorientation.​

• Impaired judgement​

• Motor impairments​

• Depression and anxiety

What are some biopsychosocial effects of CTE

🧠 Biopsychosocial Effects of CTE (Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy)

🔴 Biological	🔵 Psychological	🟢 Social
🔴 Brain degeneration	🔵 Depression	🟢 Relationship breakdowns
🔴 Headaches and dizziness	🔵 Anxiety	🟢 Loss of employment or sports career
🔴 Motor problems (tremors, unsteadiness)	🔵 Aggression or mood swings	🟢 Social withdrawal or isolation
🔴 Sleep disturbances	🔵 Poor impulse control	🟢 Legal or behavioural issues
🔴 Memory loss	🔵 Confusion and poor concentration	🟢 Reduced independence or need for care

What is CTE (What’s happening in brain)

CTE happens when after repeated blows to the head a protein called tau builds up in the brain and forms cell clumps. These clumps of tau damage the brain cells, making them work less well and eventually causing them to die. This leads to parts of the brain shrinking over time.

Over time, this leads to:

• Brain shrinkage

• Loss of neurons

• Worsening symptoms (memory loss, mood changes, movement problems)

what is a CTE brain compared to a normal brain

🧠Tau protein – normal vs CTE brain:

	Normal Brain	CTE Brain
Tau protein role	Stabilizes microtubules (helps brain cells transport nutrients and signals)	Becomes abnormal and tangled
Appearance	Spread evenly and lightly, doing its job	Clumps into twisted tangles (called neurofibrillary tangles)
Effect on neurons	Keeps neurons healthy and connected	Kills neurons, causing brain tissue to shrink
Location	Present across the brain where needed	Builds up in specific areas (frontal/temporal lobes, sulci)

🧬 Simple comparison:

• 🟢 Normal tau: Like scaffolding—supports healthy brain structure.

• 🔴 CTE tau: Like snarled wires—damages the brain by choking off cells.

What’s the difference between Case Study and an experiment  

A case study is an in-depth look at one person, group, or situation to understand it better. It's more descriptive and focuses on real-life details.

An experiment tests a specific hypothesis by changing one thing and seeing how it affects another. It usually happens in controlled conditions and focuses on cause-and-effect.

What are some ethical concepts and guidelines and what’s the difference between ethical concepts and guidelines

What is an Ethical Concept?	What is an Ethical Guideline?
Ethical concepts are broad ideas or principles that guide researchers on how to treat participants and conduct studies responsibly.	Ethical guidelines are specific rules or standards that help researchers follow ethical concepts in their research practices.

Ethical Concept	What It Means	Guideline	What It Means
Nonmaleficence	Do no harm.	Confidentiality	Keep participants' information private.
Integrity	Be honest and truthful.	Voluntary Participation	Participants choose to join without pressure.
Justice	Fairness in research.	Withdrawal Rights	Participants can leave the study anytime.
Respect	Treat people with dignity.	Informed Consent	Get participants' permission after explaining the study.
Beneficence	Maximize benefits, minimize harm.	Deception	If used, deception must be explained later.
		Debriefing	Explain the study's purpose and results after it's done.

What is the Homunculus for the frontal lobe

The amount of motor cortex devoted to each body part corresponds to the complexity of movement. ​

What is the Homunculus for the Somatosensory cortex

• The amount of sensory cortex devoted to each body part corresponds to the level of sensitivity these bodily areas have. ​

• The greater the number of sensory receptors in body and skin, the more sensitive that area is​

What is contralateral organisation

Info is contralaterally organised: ​

Right visual field processed in left occipital lobe.​​

Left visual field processed in right occipital lobe.​

also

If you move your right hand, the left side of your brain is doing the work.

If you hurt your left foot, the right side of your brain processes that pain.

What is Aphasia ​

Aphasia is when someone has trouble speaking, understanding, reading, or writing because of brain damage — often from a stroke. It doesn’t affect how smart they are, just how they use language.

What is Wernicke’s Aphasia

Wernicke’s area is in the left temporal lobe.
Wernicke’s aphasia is when a person tries to say certain words, but they come out wrong or as other words. They often can’t understand language, and may also have trouble reading and writing.
Their speech is fluent but often meaningless.

It is an ABI

They are unaware of their disability

What is Broca’s Aphasia

Broca’s area is located in the left frontal lobe, near the part of the primary motor cortex that controls the lips, tongue, and mouth.

Broca’s aphasia happens when this area is damaged.
People with it:

• Understand language well

• Know what they want to say

• But have trouble speaking clearly — they may speak slowly, leave out words, or struggle to find the right ones.

• they are aware of their disability

Brain Diagram