Sociology Exam 2

Collective effervescence 

Émile Durkheim to describe the intense, shared energy, joy, and emotional synchronization people feel when gathering for common rituals or events

Howard Becker

thought sociology was the study of people “doing things together.”

Deviance

behaviors or beliefs that violate social norms

Primary Deviance

the instance of deviance that first attracts a deviant label

Secondary Deviance

further instances of deviance that are promoted by the receipt of the deviant label 

uruguayan air force flight 571

Survivors resorted to eating deceased passengers to survive.

Medicalization

redefining something as a medical condition (e.g., ADHD, addiction).

Criminalization

making something illegal

Stigmatization 

attaching shame or negativity to an identity or behavior.

Strain Theory

the idea that deviance is caused by a tension between widely valued goals and people’s ability to attain them

Merton’s deviance typology

deviance occurs when societal pressures (strain) create a gap between cultural goals

Differential Association Theory

the idea that we have to be recruited into and taught criminal behavior by people in our social networks 

Social Disorganization Theory

the idea that deviance is more common in dysfunctional neighborhoods

Neutralization Theory

the idea that deviance is facilitated by the development of culturally resonant rationales for rule breaking 

Labeling Theory

a theory about how labels that are applied to us influence our behavior 

Durkheim’s view on deviance 

posits that crime is a normal, necessary, and functional part of all societies, rather than a sign of social dysfunction.

Collective Conscience

a societies shared understanding of what is right and wrong 

Anomie

widespread normlessness or a weakening of or alienation from social rules 

Social Cohesion

the strength of relationships, trust, and sense of belonging among members of a community or society, acting as the "glue" that binds them together

Components of structural functionalism  

structural elements, functional requirements, and mechanisms for maintaining equilibrium

Cooper

focused on Black feminism and the intersection of race/gender

Gilman

focused on patriarchal economic dependence

Social Conflict

viewing society as an arena of inequality, where competing groups struggle over scarce resources, power, and authority

Social Inequality

the long-term, structured, and uneven distribution of resources, opportunities, rewards, and punishments among different individuals or groups in society

Surveys

a quantitative research method used to collect standardized data from a sample of individuals, representing a larger population, to analyze opinions, behaviors, and social trends

Sample

a smaller, manageable subset of a larger population selected for study, aiming to represent the whole group's characteristics

Generalizability 

the extent to which research findings from a specific sample can be applied to a larger population, other settings, or different contexts

Nation States

large territories governed by centralized powers that grant or deny citizenship rights

Modern Society

the complex social structures, cultural norms, and industrialized, urbanized ways of life that have emerged since the 18th century, transitioning from traditional agrarian lifestyles

Social Organizations

as formal entities that coordinate collections of people in achieving a stated purpose. These include businesses, hospitals, schools, police forces, and social clubs.

Divisions of Labor

complicated tasks broken down into smaller parts and distributed to individuals who specialize in narrow roles

Bureaucracies 

organizations with formal policies, strict hierarchies, and impersonal relations

Modes of Thought

the characteristic frameworks, perspectives, and cognitive approaches that individuals or groups use to interpret, understand, and engage with the social world

PreModern Thought

a belief in supernatural sources of truth and a commitment to traditional practices 

Traditional Authority

power legitimized by long-standing customs, traditions, and lineage, where followers obey due to sacred or age-old practices

Modern Thought

belief in science as the sole source of truth and the idea that humans can rationally organize societies and improve human life

Rational Legal Authority

form of leadership legitimacy in sociology where power is vested in a system of codified, impersonal laws and regulations rather than in an individual

Rationalization - Weber

the process of embracing reason and using it to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of human activities

PostModern Thought

a rejection of absolute truth (whether supernatural or scientific) in favor of countless partial truths, and a denunciation of the narrative of progress

Gig Work

refers to a segment of the labor market in which companies contract with individuals to complete one short-term job at a time

Social Institutions

widespread and enduring patterns of interaction with which we respond to categories of human need. Examples: Family, Law, Economy, Education, etc

Modern Institutions

are characterized by rationalization, industrialization, and universal, grand narratives

PostModern Institutions

represent a shift toward fragmentation, skepticism of universal truths, globalization, and fluid, consumer-driven identities where reality is media-mediated.

Ideologies

a structured set of beliefs, values, and ideas that shape how individuals and groups understand reality, particularly regarding social, economic, and political systems

Social Structure

describe the entire set of interlocking social institutions in which we live

Structual Position

the features of our lives that determine our mix of opportunities and constraints

Institutional Discrimination

widespread and enduring practices that persistently disadvantage some kinds of people while advantaging others

Social Stratification

a persistent sorting of social groups into enduring hierarchies

Advantaged

individuals, groups, or communities that possess superior social, economic, or cultural resources compared to others, placing them in a better position within social hierarchies

Disadvantaged

structural, systemic, or circumstantial conditions that create inequality and limit life chances, often accumulating over a person's life course

Measures of central tendency

statistical tools used in sociology to identify the "center" or "typical" value within a data set, summarizing it into a single representative figure

Capital

the economic, social, or cultural resources we use to get the things we want and need 

Economic Capital

financial resources that are or can be converted into money 

Wealth

the total value of all assets owned by an individual or household—including property, stocks, and savings—minus any debts

Income

the total, regular flow of financial resources received from wages, salaries, investments, or government transfers

Economic Elite

the minority of people who control a disproportionate amount of wealth 

Industrialization & the start of modern capitalism

linked processes that reshaped human society from agrarian, feudal systems into urbanized, manufacturing-based economies

Systems of stratification 

a society’s hierarchical ranking of people into structured layers based on wealth, income, race, education, and power

Caste

a rigid, closed system of social stratification where membership is determined by hereditary, birth-ascribed status, characterized by marriage within the group, fixed occupational roles, and unequal hierarchical privileges

Class

a hierarchical grouping of people based on shared economic status, wealth, income, education, and occupation

Feudal

a decentralized, hierarchical socio-political system based on land ownership, and personal loyalty

Social Mobility

opportunity to move up or down the economic hierarchy

Capitalism

an economic system based on private ownership of the resources used to create wealth and the right of individuals to personally profit

Wage

The monetary compensation paid to workers, representing the price of labor and serving as a primary determinant of social inequality, living standards, and the power dynamic between labor and capital

Karl Marx

focused on economic class conflict, exploitation, and historical development through changing modes of production.

Bourgeoisie

a class of people who employ the workers

Proletariat

a class of people who are employed by others and work for a wage

Means of Pr