Unit Two Psychology

Intelligence

Hypothetical construct defined as the application of cogntive skills and knowledge to learn and problem solve

Psychometric Testing

Methods testing the abilities and skills associated with intelligence, such as reasoning, memory, and problem-solving, in order to provide an IQ score.

IQ

Standard score of an indivdual’s intelligence as measured by a test. Scores are based on the deviation from the average.

Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale

Scale assessing intelligence according to age, providing scores for fludi reasoning, knoweledge, qualative processing, visual processing and working memory.

Wechsler’s Intelligence Scale

IQ score provided for 4 seperate ares:

Verbal comprehension index → ability to process verbal information

Perceptural reasoning index → ability to use visual images for reasoning

Working memory index → short-term memory and attention

Processing speed index → mental efficency

Advantages to psychometric testing

• Provides standardised scores

• Quick and easy application of results

• Compares scores against same age group

• Make predicitions about academic performance

Limitations to Psychometric Testing

• Rarely perfect and may disadvantage some

• Should only be used if results have strong reliability and validity

• Des not consider the individual differences of a person

• Results may label people unfairly

Information Processing Theory

Framework explaing how a person processes information using PAUSe

P - processes information

A - aquires the information

U - uses the information

S - stores the information

Information Processing Theory Advantages

can be tested under controlled experimental conditions

Information Processing Theory Disadvantages

less focused on understanding influences of culture on intelligence

Sternburg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Theory propsing that practical and creative intelligences are just as important as academic

Practical - one’s ability to interact with the everyday world

Creative - one’s ability to use exsisting knowledge to create new ways to solve a problem

Analytical - academic intelligence

Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligence

Combines psychometric, biological and contextual approaches to intelligence to suggest 8 types of intelligence including, naturalist, interpersonal, logical, visual, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, musical and lingusitc

Intelligence and Inheritence - Nature

Genes based

• can limit some syndromes

• may be linked to specific intelligence genes

• applies neuroanatomy for brain functions

Intelligence and Inheritence - Nurture

Environmental Influences

• Suggests enriched and deprived environments influence how intelligent a person is

Typical Behaviour

behaviour that is accepted by a society and is typical in it’s contect

Abnormal behaviour

Behaviour out of the ordinary which is difficult to define but is highly contextualised

Normality

State of being normal defined by typical and atypical behaviours

Mental Health

State of emotional and social wellbeing where someone can realise their own abilites and cope with life

Mental Health Problems

Difficulties that arise as a result of extra periods of stress

Mental Disorder

Affects on the mind, thoughts, feelings and behaviours, that present as clinically recognisable symptoms that require treatment

Psychological disorder

Dysfunction involving disordered mood, behaviour and cognition, typically associated with ongoing periods of stress

Situational Approach to Normality

Behaviour that suits the context of the situation and is determined by social cues

Sociocultral Approach to Normality

Norms and rules within a society, suggesting what is normal based on cultural and social cues

Historical Approach to Normality

Suggests what is considered normal based on cues in different time periods

Statistical Approach to Normality

Identifies behaviours by looking at how often a behaviour occurs in a population

Functional Approach to Normality

Behaviour that is considered normal if the individual is able to lead a functional life

Psychological Dysfunction → A breakdown in the way a person thinks, feels and behaves (abnormal behaviour)

Mental Approach to Normality

Views abnormaility as a diagnosable mental disorder trying to instead provide a biological explanation

Adaptive Behaviour

Age-appropriate ‘everyday living skills’ that develop through experiences that has positive effects on a personMediation

• Running

• To-Do lists

• Cleaning

Maladaptive Behaviours

Means of reducing anxiety, orginiating from childhood experiences. Often relates to coping mechanisms

• Tantrums

• Aggression

• Self-harm

• Cleaning

Psychosis

Mental illness where there is some loss of contact with relaity

• Can be thoughts, voices and hallucinations

E.g. Schizophrenia

Neurosis

Illness presenting with difficulty in thoughts, feelings and behaviours leading to dysfunctional behaviours

E.g. Depression, OCD, NPD

DMS-5 = Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (version 5)

Manual where diagnosis is based on a number of factors; medical condition, psychosocial state and everyday functioning. However, cause and treatment are not considered.

ICD=II = International statistical classification of disease (and related health problems)

Classification system based on reported symptoms, considering physical and psychological health problems. However, cause and treatment are not considered.

Limitations of Diagnosis (based on DSM-5)

• Does not identify or allude to a cause

• Considered subjective → looks at symptoms of self-reports

• Does not suggest treatment

• Stigmas surround diagnosis

• Based on medical model → mental disorders are not medical disorders

• Does not recogise cultural context

Diagnosis of Disorder - Negative

Social stigmatisation of mental disorders stops an individual from seeking treatment

• Diagnosis may not always to inform a clear treatment pathway

• Not many people fit one category of a disorder (e.g. depression), instead a person has a combination of disorders (e.g. elements of depression, anxiety and PTSD)

• Symptoms aren’t always clear in the pt

Diagnosis of Disorder - Postive

Provides health clicinicans with a way of communication about individuals behaviours and needs

• Allows for treatment plans to be decided

• Helps communication between health clinicans

• Diagnosis helps for insurance purposes

• Allows the pt to understand themselvels better and the help available to them

Mood Disorder

General emotional state or mood are distored or inconsistent with your circumstances and interferes with your ability to function

Psychotic Disorders

Loss of contact with reality, maing a person experience a range of extreme symptoms that usually include hallucinations or delusions

Anxiety Disorders

Intense, excessive and persistent worry and dread about everyday situations which is very difficult to control

Personality Disorders

Mental disorder in which you have a ridgid and unhealthy pattern of thinking, functioning and behaving

Biopsychosocial Apprach

Holistic approach to disorders considering a persons biology, psychology and sociology

Postive Factors

Factors preventing the development of a disorder

Negative Factors

Factors contributing to the development of a disorder

Four P’s of Disorders

1. Predisposing risk factor → what a person is born with and at risk for

2. Precipitating risk factor → current symptoms exhibited

3. Perpetuating risk factor → factors inhibiting recovery

4. Protective risk factor → factors preventing disorders

Biological Risk Factors

• Genes (inherted genes or structure and neurology of brain)

• Medication (how someone responds to a prescribed medication)

• Sleep (whether a person gets enough sleep or has a sleep disorder)

• Substance abuse (affect of drug use on neural pathways)

Psychological Risk Factors

• Rumination (excessive worry about past negative events)

• Impaired reasoning and memory (ability to draw on a persons memory to problem solve)

• Stress (the safe or excessive release of coritsol and adrenaline as part of the FFF response)

Social Risk Factors

• Disorganised attachment (individuals who struggle to express their emotions or empathise)

• Loss of signficant relationship (loss of a high importance relationship including death of a loved one)

Generalised Anxiety Disorder

Medical condition characterised by persistent, excessive worry

Symptoms

• persistent, excessive or unrealistc worry (GAD)

• uncontrollable compulsions (OCD → Behavioural anxiety)

• intence worry in social situations (social anxiety)

• panic attacks (panic disorders)

GAD

• excessive worry

• focused (stems from a main trigger like family, friends, work)

• difficult to control

• worry needs to be present for 6 months before a diagnosis

Social Phobias

• afraid of being judged or evaluated by society

• most suffer one type of situations, some fear many

Specific Phobia

• persistent irrational fear of an object or situation (clowns or flying)

• person may experience physical symptoms or panic attacks

Panic Disorders

• not related to a situation; occur spontaneously

• individual needs to have 4 attacks in one month to get diagnosed

Stigmas of Help-seeking Behaviours

The labels, names and thoughts a society associates with a specific group

Example: being gay is an illness

Self-Stigma

When a person internalises negative stereotypes and has negative subsequent emotions

Social Stigma

Prejudice and discrimination directed at individuals with psychological disorders by the general public

Institutional Stigma

Government organisations and policies that restrict opportunites for those with a mental disorder

Placebo Effect

• Effect occurs when an indivudal is told something and they believe it

Example: Taking this pill will make you run faster. An individual takes a sugar pill believing they will run faster, so in turn they run faster

Psychotherapy

A psychological apprach to treating disorders

Pharmacotherapies

Use of medication to treat disorders

Electroconvulsive Therapy

Passing of an eletrical current through the brain affecting the brain activity

Emotion

Response of an organsim involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviours and conscious experience

Components of Emotions

1. Involves a physiological change (e.g. increased HR from the sympathetic nervous system being activated)

2. Subjective feelings (feelings associated with an emotion that cannot be objectively measured, like happiness or sadness)

3. A behavioural response (e.g. tapping fingers on a desk because you are annoyed)

Two Factor Theory of Emotion

• Theory says that when an emotion is felt, a physical arousal will occur

• An individual will label the emotion from their ‘cogntivie explanations’ or current situation

• Physical arousal occurs before an emotion is felt

• Proposes stimulus → physiological change and label of feeling → emotion

Cogntivie Apprasial Model

Suggets that cognitive apprasial is a personal interpretation of the situation

Primary apprasial → situation being perceived as irrelevant, benefical or stressful

Secondary apprasial → assessment of resources to cope or improve the situation

Happiness

A subjective experience that brings positive physiological responses to a person, often reffering to a person’s enjoyment and satisfaction.

Positive Effect in Happiness

High emotional state with generally positive thoughts and feelings

Negative Effect in Happiness

Pessimistic view on line where a person has negative thoughts and feelings

Flow

The holistic senstation that people feel whe the act with total involvement

Characteristics of Flow

1. Complete Concentration

2. Clear Goals

3. Transformation of Time (Speed up or Slow down)

4. Experience is Rewarding

5. Effortlessness and Ease

6. Balance between Challenge and Skill

7. Loss of Self-Conscious Rumination

8. Feeling of Control on Taste

Limitations of Flow

Becomes addictive and at times unstable

Broaden and Build Theory

The form and function of a subject of positive emotions, including joy, interest, contentment and love.

Broaden & Build Theory Diagram

Subjective Wellbeing Theory

Aspects of happiness that can be measured:

1. Positive Effects

2. Negative Effects

3. Life Satisfaction

Wellbeing Categories

1. Autonomy (picking your own R.Q for your FIA3)

2. Environmental Mastery (blanacing work, school, social life)

3. Personal Growth (Leadning the piano in later life)

4. Positive Relationships with Others (showing empathy to friends)

5. Purpose in Life (volunteeriing at a hospital)

6. Self-acceptance (embracing all aspects of themselves)

Motivation

The willingness of a person to expend a certain amount of effort to achieve a particular goal under a particular circumstance

Achievement Goal Theory

Achievement Goals = competence-based goals aims that individuals target in evaluative settings (e.g. sport)

Ego Goals = Reflect competence in terms of absolute evaluative standards or tasks (e.g. running 5km in under 30min)

Limitation to Achievement Goal Theory

Individuals are going to be somewhere inbetween task goals and ego goals C

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Suggests that there are two motivation systems; intrinsic and extrinsic

Intrinsic motivation - internal motivation like achievement, responsibility etc. This links to ego goals

Extrinsic motivation - external motivation like pay or feedback. This links to task goals

Self-Efficacy

Assess one’s belief to achieve their own goals by their own actions

Goal

What an individual strives to acomplish

Why Goal Setting Improves Performance

1. Directs attention to task and away from distractions

2. Energise Effort

3. Increase Persistence

4. Promote the development of new knowledge and strategies

Principles of Goal Setting

1. Clarity → Goal is easy to measure

2. Challenging → Needs to have someone work hard for an achievement

3. Commitment → Prepared to put in the effort

4. Feedback → self-reflection on limits/strengths

5. Task Complexity → Needs to be realistic based on current achievement

Mindfulness

Practice of attending to one’s environment without judgement

Attention

How we pay attention to stimuli, including time and preferance

Acceptance

Practice of embracing all thoughts, feelings and experiences without judgement, resistence or attempts to change them.

Mindfulness Based Therapies

Therapies encourgae participants to change the way they pay attnetion, and reach a non-judgemental accepatance of their experiences. This allows better mindfulness for a person.

Limbic System

Connection of interconnected brain areas including:

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Amygdala

Hippocampus

Cingulate Gyrus

Basal Ganglia → Important in emotion but not apart of system

Thalamus

• Recieves all sensory information (excluding smell)

• Role in emotion is to direct information into appropriate areas

• Located in the forebrain

Hypothalamus

• Controls atuomatic functions

• Role in emotion is the create the physiological response (FFF)

• Links nervous system and endocrine system together

• Located below the thalamus

Amygdala

• Assess emotional relevance of stimuli

• Triggers the hypothalamus to create a physiological response

• Conditioning and recognising of emotions for social processing

• Critical for fear

Hippocampus

• Forms emotional memories (e.g. don’t go near the bully)

• Intergrates emotional intesity with contexual details

• Important for memory recall of emotional events (i.e. remembers how you felt in the past about something)

Cingulate Gyrus

• Involved in attention of emotional and cognitive processing

• Combines body state and attention to create conscious emotional experiences

• Involved in emotional memory and physiological pain (e.g. rejection)

• Located above corpus collosum

Basal Ganglia

• Group of subcortical structures involves in movement and cognition

• Linked to emotional recognition (facial expressions), social interaction and decision making

• Plays a role in the brains reward system (dopamine and habit)

Pathway of Emotion: Short Route

Fast, unconscious reactions key for survival situations

Emotional Stimulus → thalamus → amygdala → emotional response

Example: Jumping Away from a snake-like stick

Pathway for Emotion: Long Route

Slower, conscious, thoughtful reactions for a more accurate apprasial response

Emotional Stimulus → thalamus → sensory cortex → amygdala/hippocampus → emotional response

Example: Reading an angry message from a friend