Psychology Midterm Review – Chapters 1-4, 7-8

Vocabulary flashcards covering major terms and definitions from Chapters 1-4, 7-8 of the psychology lecture notes. Use them to quiz yourself on key concepts, researchers, methods, and theories across history, biology, consciousness, development, learning, and memory.

Empirical Approach

The view that knowledge should be gained through systematic observation and experimentation.

Critical Thinking

Carefully analyzing evidence, questioning assumptions, and evaluating sources rather than accepting arguments at face value.

Structuralism

Early school of psychology (Wundt, Titchener) that used introspection to study the components of the mind’s structure.

Functionalism

James’s school focusing on the adaptive purposes (functions) of thoughts and behaviors.

Behaviorism

Psychological perspective (Watson, Skinner) that studies only observable behavior and rejects introspection.

Humanistic Psychology

Perspective (Rogers, Maslow) emphasizing personal growth, potential, and self-fulfillment.

Cognitive Psychology

Scientific study of mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem solving.

Cognitive Neuroscience

Field that links brain activity with mental processes.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Nature-Nurture Issue

Debate over the relative contributions of genes and environment to behavior and mental processes.

Natural Selection

Darwin’s principle that inherited traits that aid survival and reproduction are most likely to be passed on.

Evolutionary Psychology

Approach that explains behavior in terms of adaptation and natural selection.

Behavior Genetics

Field examining how genes and environment influence behavior, often via twin and adoption studies.

Culture

Shared ideas, values, and behaviors passed from one generation to the next.

Positive Psychology

Seligman’s science of human strengths, well-being, and flourishing.

Biopsychosocial Approach

Integrated view combining biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

Levels of Analysis

Complementary perspectives (biological, psychological, social) for studying any phenomenon.

Basic Research

Pure science that aims to increase the body of knowledge.

Applied Research

Scientific study that seeks practical solutions to real-world problems.

Counseling Psychology

Branch helping people with everyday life challenges such as school or relationships.

Clinical Psychology

Branch that assesses and treats mental disorders using therapy (not medications).

Psychiatry

Medical specialty that treats psychological disorders with drugs and therapy.

Community Psychology

Branch that works to improve social and physical environments to prevent problems.

Hindsight Bias

The “I-knew-it-all-along” tendency to see events as predictable after they happen.

Peer Reviewers

Experts who evaluate research for quality before publication.

Theory

An evidence-based explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction derived from a theory.

Operational Definition

Exact description of procedures used to define research variables.

Replication

Repeating a study to test whether original findings extend to new participants or situations.

Meta-Analysis

Statistical procedure that combines results of many studies to reach overall conclusions.

Case Study

Descriptive method involving in-depth analysis of one individual or group.

Naturalistic Observation

Recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation.

Survey

Self-report method for obtaining attitudes or behaviors of a large group quickly.

Random Sample

Sample in which every member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion.

Population

Entire group about which a researcher wishes to draw conclusions.

Correlation

Measure of the relationship between two variables.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

Statistical index (-1 to +1) indicating the strength and direction of a relationship.

Experiment

Research method that manipulates an independent variable to determine cause-and-effect.

Experimental Group

Participants who receive the treatment in an experiment.

Control Group

Participants who receive no treatment or a placebo; serve as baseline.

Random Assignment

Placing participants into groups by chance to minimize pre-existing differences.

Double-Blind Procedure

Both participants and researchers are unaware of who receives the treatment, reducing bias.

Placebo Effect

Improvement resulting from expectations of receiving treatment rather than the treatment itself.

Independent Variable (IV)

Factor the experimenter manipulates.

Dependent Variable (DV)

Outcome that is measured; may change due to IV manipulation.

Confounding Variable

Outside factor that could influence results if not controlled.

Informed Consent

Ethical principle requiring participants be told enough to choose whether to take part.

Debriefing

Post-experiment explanation of the study, including its purpose and any deception.

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving information instead of simply rereading.

Biological Psychology

Branch studying links between biological processes and behavior.

Neuron

Nerve cell; basic unit of the nervous system.

Dendrite

Neuron extension that receives messages and conducts impulses toward the cell body.

Axon

Neuron fiber that sends impulses to other neurons or muscles.

Myelin Sheath

Fatty tissue that insulates axons and speeds neural impulses.

Glial Cells

Support cells that nourish, protect, and clean up after neurons.

Action Potential

Brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

All-or-None Response

Neurons fire fully or not at all.

Refractory Period

Resting pause after a neuron fires during which it cannot fire again.

Synapse

Tiny gap between neurons where neurotransmitters cross.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that carry signals across synapses.

Reuptake

Reabsorption of excess neurotransmitter by the sending neuron.

Agonist

Molecule that mimics a neurotransmitter and stimulates a response.

Antagonist

Molecule that blocks a neurotransmitter’s action.

Nervous System

Body’s speedy communication network, consisting of CNS and PNS.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All nerves outside CNS; connects body to brain.

Somatic Nervous System

PNS division controlling voluntary skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

PNS division controlling glands and internal organs.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Autonomic subdivision that arouses the body for “fight or flight.”

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Autonomic subdivision that calms the body, conserving energy.

Endocrine System

Slow chemical communication system; hormones released into bloodstream.

Pituitary Gland

Master gland that regulates other endocrine glands.

Adrenal Glands

Produce epinephrine and norepinephrine to arouse body in stress.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

Records electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp.

PET Scan

Imaging that shows brain activity by detecting radioactive glucose.

fMRI

Technique revealing blood-flow changes to show brain function and structure.

MRI

Imaging that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to show brain structure.

Brainstem

Oldest brain region; controls basic survival functions.

Medulla

Brainstem base controlling heartbeat and breathing.

Pons

Brainstem area involved in movement and sleep.

Thalamus

Brain’s sensory relay station for all senses except smell.

Reticular Formation

Nerve network controlling arousal and alertness.

Cerebellum

Coordinates balance, movement, and nonverbal learning.

Limbic System

Neural system associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

Limbic structure linked to fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

Limbic structure that helps form new memories.

Hypothalamus

Maintains body functions like hunger, thirst, temperature, and sex drive.

Cerebral Cortex

Thin surface layer of interconnected neurons; enables thinking and perception.

Frontal Lobe

Region involved in decision making, speaking, and voluntary movement.

Parietal Lobe

Region processing touch and body position.

Occipital Lobe

Region that processes visual information.

Temporal Lobe

Region involved in hearing and language.

Motor Cortex

Area controlling voluntary muscle movements.

Somatosensory Cortex

Area registering body touch and movement sensations.

Association Areas

Regions involved in higher mental functions such as learning and speaking.

Corpus Callosum

Large band of fibers connecting the brain’s hemispheres.

Split Brain

Condition after cutting the corpus callosum; hemispheres act independently.

Genes

Units of heredity made of DNA.

Chromosomes

Threadlike DNA structures containing genes.

DNA

Molecule carrying genetic information.