parents and children

childbearing 

• The ONS found that nearly h____ (____%) of all children are now b____ o____ marriage: over twice as many as in 19____

• However, nearly all these births are j____ r____ by b___ p____. In most cases, the parents are c____.

• Women are having children l_____: between 19___ and 20___, their average age at the birth of their first child rose by how much? to what?

• Women are having f____ c___ than in the century, though the number increased slightly in the early century. The average number of children per woman fell from a peak of ____ in 19___ to a record low of ____
  In 20___.

• More women are remaining c____: ____% of those born in 19___ were childless by age ____, compared with only ___% of those born a generation earlier, in 19____.

childbearing 

• The ONS found that nearly half (48.5%) of all children are now born outside marriage: over twice as many as in 1986

• However, nearly all these births are jointly registered by both parents. In most cases, the parents are cohabiting.

• Women are having children later: between 1971 and 2019, their average age at the birth of their first child rose by four years to 30.7 years.

• Women are having fewer children than in the 20th century, though the number increased slightly in the early 21st century. The average number of children per woman fell from a peak of 2.93 in 1964 to a record low of 1.58
  In 2020.

• More women are remaining childless: 19% of those born in 1973 were childless by age 45, compared with only 9% of those born a generation earlier, in 1946.

reasons for changes in childbearing 

• Reasons for the increase in births outside marriage include a decline in s____ and increase in c_____- For example, only ___% of ___-___ year olds now think m____ should come before p____.

• what 3 things reflect the fact that women now have more options than just motherhood?

• Many are seeking to establish themselves in a c____ before starting a f___, or instead of having c___ at all.

reasons for changes in childbearing 

• Reasons for the increase in births outside marriage include a decline in stigma and increase in cohabitation- For example, only 28% of 25-34 year olds now think marriage should come before parenthood.

• The later age at which women are having children, smaller family sizes and the fact that more women are remaining childless, all reflect the fact that women now have more options than just motherhood.

• Many are seeking to establish themselves in a career before starting a family, or instead of having children at all.

Lone-parent families

Lone-parent families now make up what percentage of all families with children? One child in f____ lives in a lone-parent family.

• About ___% of these families are headed by l____ m____.

• Until the early 19___, d_____ w ____ were the biggest group of l____ m____. From the early 19___, s___ (never m____) women became the biggest group of lone mothers.

• A child living with a lone parent is t____ as likely to be in p___ as a child living with two parents.

Lone-parent families

Lone-parent families now make up 24% of all families with children. One child in five lives in a lone-parent family.

• About 90% of these families are headed by lone mothers.

• Until the early 1990s, divorced women were the biggest group of lone mothers. From the early 1990s, single (never married) women became the biggest group of lone mothers.

• A child living with a lone parent is twice as likely to be in poverty as a child living with two parents.

Reasons for lone-parent families

• The number of lone-parent families has risen due to the increase in d____ and s____ and more recently, due to the increase in the number of n___-m____ women having c____.

• This is linked to the decline in s____ attached to births outside marriage → in the past, what was a common cause of lone-parent families, but this is no longer very significant?

Lone-parent families tend to be female-headed for several reason- name 3

Reasons for lone-parent families

• The number of lone-parent families has risen due to the increase in divorce and separation and more recently, due to the increase in the number of never-married women having children.

• This is linked to the decline in stigma attached to births outside marriage → in the past, the death of one parent was a common cause of lone-parent families, but this is no longer very significant.

Lone-parent families tend to be female-headed for several reasons. These include:

• the widespread belief that women are by nature suited to an 'expressive or nurturing role

• the fact that divorce courts usually give custody of children to mothers

• the fact that men may be less willing than women to give up work to care for children.

Single by choice →Reasons for lone-parent families

•  Many lone-parent families are female-headed because the mothers are s____ by c____. They may not wish to c____ or m____, or they may wish to limit what?

• J____ R_____ (1985) found that p____ women were able to s____ their child without the f____ i____.

• Equally, as E____ C______ (1985) found, some w____-c____ m____ with l____ e_____ p___ chose to live how? often because they had experienced a_____

• . Feminist i_____, and greater o_____ for w_____ may also have encouraged an increase in the number of n____-m____ lone mothers.

Single by choice →Reasons for lone-parent families

•  Many lone-parent families are female-headed because the mothers are single by choice. They may not wish to cohabit or marry, or they may wish to limit the father's involvement with the child.

• Jean Renvoize (1985) found that professional women were able to support their child without the father's involvement.

• Equally, as Ellis Cashmore (1985) found, some working-class mothers with less earning power chose to live on welfare benefits without a partner, often because they had experienced abuse

• . Feminist ideas, and greater opportunities for women, may also have encouraged an increase in the number of never-married lone mothers.

Lone parenthood, the welfare state and poverty

• The New Right thinker C____ M______ (1984) sees the growth of lone-parent families as resulting from what?

• M___ argues that this has created a 'p_____ i_____'; that is, it rewards i_____ b____, such as having children without being able to p____ for them.

• The w____ s____ creates a 'd____ c____' in which people assume that the s___ will support them and their c____.

• For M____, the solution is to do what? This would reduce the d____ c____ that e____ births outside m____.

Lone parenthood, the welfare state and poverty

• The New Right thinker Charles Murray (1984) sees the growth of lone-parent families as resulting from an over-generous welfare state providing benefits for unmarried mothers and their children.

• Murray argues that this has created a 'perverse incentive'; that is, it rewards irresponsible behaviour, such as having children without being able to provide for them.

• The welfare state creates a 'dependency culture' in which people assume that the state will support them and their children.

• For Murray, the solution is to abolish welfare benefits. This would reduce the dependency culture that encourages births outside marriage.

Lone parenthood, the welfare state and poverty

✘- However, critics of New Right views argue that welfare benefits are far from g____ and l____-p_____ families are much more likely to be in p___.

Reasons for this include:

• Lack of affordable childcare prevents many l____ p_____ from working. They are more likely to be u____ than parents with partners,

• I____ welfare benefits.

• Most lone parents are w_____, who generally e___ l___ than men.

• F____ of fathers to pay m____, especially if they have formed what?

Lone parenthood, the welfare state and poverty

✘- However, critics of New Right views argue that welfare benefits are far from generous and lone-parent families are much more likely to be in poverty.

Reasons for this include:

• Lack of affordable childcare prevents many lone parents from working. They are more likely to be unemployed than parents with partners,

• Inadequate welfare benefits.

• Most lone parents are women, who generally earn less than men.

• Failure of fathers to pay maintenance, especially if they have formed a second family that they have to support.

Stepfamilies

• Stepfamilies (often called r____ families) account for over ___% of all families with dependent children in Britain.

• In ___% of stepfamilies, at least one child is from where?, while in ____% there is at least one child from the man's previous relationship. In ____% of stepfamilies there are children from where?

•  F____ and S___ (1998) found that stepfamilies are very similar to first families in all major respects, and that the involvement of stepparents in childcare and childrearing is a p___ one. However, they found that stepfamilies are at greater risk of p___.

• According to A____ and C____ (2001), stepfamilies may face particular problems of what? 

•  M_____ et al (2003) conclude that there is d___ among these families and so we should speak 'stepfamilies' plural rather than 'the stepfamily. Some have few tensions, while for those that do, the tensions are not so different from those in 'intact' families.

Stepfamilies

• Stepfamilies (often called reconstituted families) account for over 10% of all families with dependent children in Britain.

• In 85% of stepfamilies, at least one child is from the woman's previous relationship, while in 11% there is at least one child from the man's previous relationship. In 4% of stepfamilies there are children from both partners' previous relationships.

•  Ferri and Smith (1998) found that stepfamilies are very similar to first families in all major respects, and that the involvement of stepparents in childcare and childrearing is a positive one. However, they found that stepfamilies are at greater risk of poverty.

• According to Allan and Crow (2001), stepfamilies may face particular problems of divided loyalties and issues such as contact with the non-resident parent can cause tensions.

•  McCarthy et al (2003) conclude that there is diversity among these families and so we should speak 'stepfamilies' plural rather than 'the stepfamily. Some have few tensions, while for those that do, the tensions are not so different from those in 'intact' families.

reasons for patterns in step families

• Stepfamilies are formed how? Thus the factors causing an increase in the number of l____ p____, such as d_____ and s____, are also responsible for the creation of stepfamilies.

• More children in stepfamilies are from the woman's previous relationship than the man's - why is this?

• Stepparents are at greater risk of poverty because there are often m____ c____ and because the stepfather may also have to s____ c____ from a p_____ r____.

• Some of the tensions faced by stepfamilies may be the result of what?

reasons for patterns in step families

• Stepfamilies are formed when lone parents form new partnerships. Thus the factors causing an increase in the number of lone parents, such as divorce and separation, are also responsible for the creation of stepfamilies.

• More children in stepfamilies are from the woman's previous relationship than the man's because, when marriages and cohabitations break up, children are more likely to remain with their mother.

• Stepparents are at greater risk of poverty because there are often more children and because the stepfather may also have to support children from a previous relationship.

• Some of the tensions faced by stepfamilies may be the result of a lack of clear social norms about how individuals should behave in such families.