Cognitive Biases, Research Methods, and Statistics

Vocabulary flashcards covering cognitive biases, research methods, and statistics terms from the lecture review notes.

Hindsight bias

A cognitive bias involving the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen or predicted it.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias where a person's subjective confidence in their judgments is reliably greater than the objective accuracy of those judgments.

Barnum effect

A cognitive bias where individuals believe generic, highly general personality descriptions apply specifically to them.

Social desirability bias

A cognitive bias where survey respondents answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Empirical approach

An evidence-based method of gaining knowledge through direct observation and experimentation rather than theory or intuition.

Framing

The way questions or options are worded and presented, which can significantly influence responses and introduce bias.

Basic research

Pure science research aimed at increasing the scientific knowledge base without immediate practical application.

Applied research

Scientific study and research that aims to solve practical, real-world problems.

Independent variable

The factor in an experiment that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to observe its effect.

Dependent variable

The factor in an experiment that is measured to assess the effect of the independent variable.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or independent variable being tested.

Control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment, serving as a baseline for comparison.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables or the outcome of a study.

Falsifiability

The capacity for a hypothesis, theory, or statement to be proven wrong through testing or observation.

Operational definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures or measures used to define research variables.

Population

The entire group of individuals that a researcher wants to study and draw conclusions about.

Sample

A subset of individuals selected from a larger population to participate in a study.

Representative sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the larger population from which it was drawn.

Matched sample

A selection method where participants are paired across conditions based on specific shared traits to control for potential confounding variables.

Random sample

A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences between the groups.

Placebo

An inactive substance or fake treatment given to control group participants to test the effects of participant expectations.

Single-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether participants received the treatment or a placebo.

Hawthorne Effect

The tendency of research subjects to alter their behavior when they know they are being observed.

Confounding variable

A third variable in an experiment, other than the independent variable, that might produce an unwanted effect on the results.

Quantitative data collection

The gathering of numerical data that can be measured and analyzed statistically.

Qualitative data collection

The gathering of non-numerical descriptive data, such as observations, interview responses, or written text.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical guidelines for human and animal participants are met.

Case Study

A research method in which one individual or group is studied in depth to reveal universal principles.

Naturalistic observation

A research method involving observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation or control.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together; it shows predictability but does not equal causation.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical measure expressing the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each representing the values of two variables, used to visually assess correlation.

Illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when no actual relationship exists.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique for combining and synthesizing the results of multiple independent studies on the same topic.

Descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to measure, summarize, and describe characteristics of a specific dataset.

Inferential statistics

Numerical methods used to determine if data from a sample can be generalized to a broader population.

Mean

A measure of central tendency calculated as the arithmetic average of a distribution of scores.

Median

A measure of central tendency representing the middle score in a distribution when ordered from lowest to highest.

Mode

A measure of central tendency representing the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

Range

A measure of variation calculated as the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score of a distribution.

Positive skew

A distribution curve where the majority of scores are concentrated at the low end, with a tail extending toward higher values.

Negative skew

A distribution curve where the majority of scores are concentrated at the high end, with a tail extending toward lower values.

Normal bell curve

A symmetrical distribution where most scores fall near the mean and fewer fall near the extreme ends.

Regression toward the mean

The tendency for results that are extreme high or low on a first measure to regress closer to the mean on re-measure.

Statistical Significance

A statistical measure indicating how likely it is that the results are due to chance or are the result of the research study.