Social Science Section 1 – Thinking Geographically

Human geography

The study of the variability of human activities across different time periods and locations

Spatial perspective

Common to all approaches of human geography, reasons a particular phenomenon occurs in a certain context or location, the “why of where”

Cartography

The study and methodology of map-making and representing Earth visually through maps

Absolute location

The exact position of a place or object as defined by a fixed spatial system such as coordinates or a grid

Latitude lines

Parallel lines used in coordinate grid system which denote an object’s distance from the equator

Longitude lines

Parallel lines used in coordinate grid system which denote an object’s distance from the prime meridian

What is the other term for longitude lines?

Meridians

Prime meridian

Imaginary line designated as 0˚ longitude

Where is the prime meridian located?

The Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England

Political maps

Maps which indicate politically designated characteristics of an area, such as boundaries, capital cities, or urban areas

Physical maps

Maps used to aid navigation and depicting major landforms such as mountains, rivers, and deserts, often use isolines

Road maps

Maps which aid in navigation by depicting land transportation routes

Topographic maps

Physical reference maps used to aid in navigation by depicting terrain using isolines, often used for land engineering and recreation

Isoline

Lines on topographic maps indicating areas of the same elevation

Thematic maps

Type of map which shows variables across a region, intending to portray patterns or trends

Choropleth maps

Type of thematic map which shows distribution of data in a region often using shades of a color to indicate density or intensity

Dot distribution maps/Dot density maps

Type of thematic map which indicates data point frequency through dot location and density

Isoline maps

Type of thematic map which uses isolines to indicate areas which have points of equal value

Graduated symbol map

Type of thematic map which indicates data quantity and density of a region by using symbols of various sizes

Flowline map

Type of thematic map which uses arrows or lines of various sizes to indicate trends of movement of data points across a region

Cartogram map

Thematic map which uses visual distortions overlaid on the area portrayed to compare relative variables

Area cartogram

Cartogram maps which distort an entire region to depict variables in space

Distance cartogram

Cartogram map displaying travel distance and time of travel

Mental map

Individual’s own internal, subjective perception of the locations around them used to navigate without a physical reference

Absolute distance

A measurable span between locations measured in standard units

Accessibility

How easily one location is influenced by and reachable from another; negatively correlated with absolute distance

Distance decay effect

The negative relationship between interaction between locations and the absolute distance between them, has been reduced by advances in technology

Time-space compression

Phenomenon of technological advances lessening the distance decay effect

Globalization

Increasing connections of people, places, ideas, and concepts across the world

Relative location

Description of an object’s place in space in relation to other objects nearby

Clustering

The close concentration of objects or factors within a location

Dispersal

Even, often random, distribution of data across a region

Elevation

Distance between a point on a map and sea level, most commonly shown on topographic maps

Scale

In cartography, the amount of detail a map displays and the relationship or ratio between the depicted distances and the actual distances, inversely correlated with fidelity but directly correlated to total area able to be displayed

Projection

Transferring three-dimensional geographic location onto a flat map, causes inaccuracies

Shape

In cartography, the true boundaries and form of an object, distorted by projection due to altered dimensions

Size

In cartography, the true area of objects, distorted by projections

Distance

In cartography, the physical separation between locations, distorted by projected causing inaccurate location proximity

Direction

In cartography, the orientation between two locations, distorted by projections causing simplified trajectories ignoring the three-dimensionality of Earth

Mercator projection

Map projection which aims to reduce shape and direction distortions, but alters size near polar regions

Peters/Gall-Peters projection

Map projection which aims to show relative sizes correctly but alters landmass shapes

Equal-area projection

Map projection aiming to keep size accurate, but distorting shape of landmasses

Robinson projection

Map projection aiming for a balance between the various accuracies and distortions of other map projections

Geographic data

Data providing information about locations and human relationships with them allowing for pattern recognition and geographic study of interactions between humans and their environment

Spatial data

Physical data about a location gained from references like satellite imagery or GPS

Non-spatial data

Data describing the characteristics of a location such as its demographics

Field data

Geographic information collected by experts at said location

GIS (Geographic Information System)

Cartographic technological tool which superimposes layers of data onto an area or region to show trends and connections

GPS (Global Positioning System)

Cartographic technological tool relying on location data to show the absolute location of an object

Remote sensing

Cartographic technology using satellites and other aircraft to gather spatial information, allowing for detailed studies of human-environment interactions and mapping of wide regions and their pattern

Toponym

The name given to a certain location

Natural features

Physical characteristics of a location formed by natural processes

Human features

Physical characteristics of a location formed by human processes

Residential use

Type of land use related to how people use natural spaces and resources to construct places to live

Agricultural use

Type of land use related to how natural resources are commercialized and produced for consumption

Commercial use

Type of land use related to application of locations and natural resources for creating economic value

Industrial use

Type of land use related to allocation of land and natural resources for manufacturing

Cultural landscape

Defined by an area’s types of land us, how a natural environment has been altered by humans to reflect unique traits of a culture or society

Gerrymandering

Purposeful manipulation of voting boundaries to favor a certain political party

[Higher-order thinking] What aspect of data distribution does gerrymandering take advantage of?

C. Clustering

Space

Area between places, such as how objects are arranged within it

[application] Is land use spatial or non-spatial data?

Non-spatial

Flows

Patterns of how people, money, cultural ideas, and technology move between places

[application] Which of the following would MOST affect flows?

B. Distance decay effect

Diffusion

How variables spread across a place

Relocation diffusion

Type of diffusion occurring when something is dispersed through a region via movement of people

Expansion diffusion

Type of diffusion where something originates from a point and spreads outward

Hierarchical diffusion

Type of diffusion where ideas or objects spread from groups of higher status to other groups

Contagious diffusion

Rapid and widespread diffusion, a la disease or memes

Stimulus diffusion

Type of diffusion occurring when a factor is adapted to a new location

Sense of place

Subjective meaning and understanding of a location, often an emotional attachment

Placelessness

Condition of a place lacking unique features attributed to or associated with humans or nature

Sustainability

Responsible, strategic use of natural resources to ensure sustainable reserves exist for the future

Environmental sustainability

Protection and preservation of ecosystem and natural resources from overexploitation and subsequent degradation

Economic sustainability

Preservation of economic growth while preventing systemic collapse

Social sustainability

Establishment of equity and other well-being outcomes across regions

Environmental determinism

Philosophy that natural factors determine human lifestyles and levels of development

Environmental possibilism

Philosophy that places a larger emphasis on human impact on human outcomes, has increased due to technological and scientific advancements

Climate change

Major observable shifts in global and local climate patterns driven by natural and human processes

Urban sprawl

Rapid expansion of cities into otherwise non-urban land

Scale of analysis

Level at which one analyses a location

Global scale

Scale of analysis examining the entire Earth or an incredibly prevalent phenomenon

Regional scale

Scale of analysis examining multiple regions in conjunction

National scale

Scale of analysis analysing one country or comparing data across regions in a country

Local scale

Scale of analysis analysing patterns or trends within a community

Region

An are of Earth which shares multiple common identifiers or activity trends

Formal regions

Regions defined by consistent unifying characteristics

Functional regions

Regions defined as being centralized around a hub organizing movement and activity

Vernacular regions/folk regions/perceptual regions

Regions defined by cultural perceptions and patterns, often transcend drawn boundaries

Site

In geography, a location’s physical traits

Situation

In geography, how a location is linked with other locations