Ecological Archaeology: Human-Environment Interactions and Site Analysis

Ecological Archaeology

The study of the relationship and interplay between humans and the natural environment.

Paleoenvironment

The ancient environment that humans adapted to, essential for understanding cultural practices.

Material Remains

Ecofacts like bones, seeds, and sediments used to recreate past ecological realities.

Biotic Environment

The living aspects of the environment, including plant and animal species.

Abiotic Environment

The non-living aspects of the environment, such as topography, soil, and climate.

Sedimentological Analysis

A method to determine environmental conditions based on sediment types and deposition energy.

Fine-Grained Sediments

Sediments like clay and silt that suggest low-energy deposition.

Coarse-Grained Sediments

Sediments like sand and gravel that indicate high-energy deposition.

Settlement Patterns

The study of how human settlements are organized at various levels.

Household Archaeology

The examination of individual houses, focusing on physical characteristics and social uses.

Fire Hearths

Structures within a household that may indicate the number of nuclear families living there.

Seasonality Studies

Research determining the time of year a site was occupied through faunal and plant remains.

Faunal Remains

Animal remains used to infer seasonal occupation based on skeletal development.

Plant Remains

Plant materials analyzed to determine the time of year wild plants ripen.

Cultural Practices

The behaviors and traditions of human populations influenced by their environment.

Carrying Capacity

The maximum number of individuals that an environment can support sustainably.

Paleontologists

Specialists who study ancient life forms, often involved in identifying remains in ecological archaeology.

Palynologists

Specialists who study pollen and spores to understand past environments.

Fluvial Deposition

The process of sediment being deposited by river action.

Aeolian Deposition

The process of sediment being deposited by wind action.

Erosion

The process by which soil and rock are removed from the Earth's surface by natural processes.

High-Energy Deposition

Sediment deposition that occurs under conditions of strong energy, such as fast-moving water.

Low-Energy Deposition

Sediment deposition that occurs under calm conditions, such as gentle winds.

Estimating Population

Estimates of population size are sometimes based on the number of burials, artifacts (e.g., cooking pots), or volume of deposits, but are most reliable when drawn from ethnographic and historic records.

Generalized Foraging

Collecting a wide variety of wild plants and animals; highly mobile, egalitarian groups (typically <50 people).

Specialized Foraging

Dependence on a diversity of wild resources, specializing primarily in one type; semi-sedentary; marked social inequality.

Pastoralism

Herding domesticated animals (e.g., cattle, sheep, goats). Seasonal mobility; slight social inequality.

Horticulture

Plant cultivation using only hand tools; often multiyear village occupation.

Agriculture

Intensive plant cultivation, often with animals/irrigation; supports high population density and monumental architecture.

Distinguishing Wild vs. Domestic Species

Identifying domestication can be challenging, especially in early stages.

Plants (Domestication)

The principal variable is size; the edible part of a domestic plant tends to be larger than its wild counterpart.

Animals (Domestication)

Domestic animals were often initially smaller than their wild counterparts, perhaps due to selective breeding for manageability or poorer diet.

Plant and Animal Remains in Cultural Context

Foods found in middens, fire hearths, or containers provide the most common and reliable indicators.

Human Skeletal Remains

Analysis of carbon and nitrogen isotopes in bone can indicate the relative amounts of protein derived from marine versus terrestrial sources.

Human Waste (Coprolites)

This offers highly reliable evidence, as coprolites contain remnants of partially digested foods, including seeds, small bones, and hair.

Residue Analysis

Chemical analysis of residues left on artifacts (e.g., fats in pottery) can determine the type of food or liquid stored or processed.

Paleodiet Critique

Archaeologists widely consider the idea of a universal 'paleodiet' or 'Caveman diet' to be absurd, as it fails to account for the diversity of diets in prehistory.

Cereal Grains

One type of plant that can be differentiated from root crops in human diet analysis.

Root Crops

Another type of plant that can be differentiated from cereal grains in human diet analysis.

Seasonal Mobility

Movement patterns associated with pastoralism, where herders move with their livestock.

Social Inequality

A characteristic of specialized foraging and pastoralism, where resources are not equally distributed.

Multiyear Occupation

A characteristic of horticulture, indicating long-term settlement in one area.

Monumental Architecture

Structures built as a result of intensive agriculture, supporting high population density.