intro to sociology
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125 Terms
what is society
A group of people interacting within any given territory, who are guided in their daily lives by culture
what is culture
beliefs, values, practices, norms, language, symbols, material objects constituting a people’s way of life
what are the 2 types of culture
Material objects —> tell us about laborers, materials, history, etc.
Non-material culture —> ideas, sounds, tastes, senses; intangible thing
what is Mills’ concept of the sociological imagination
Patterns of our lives have intricate connections to course of world history
sociological imagination → enables us to understand larger historical scene in terms of its meaning for inner life & external career of many people
Enables us to understand how people become falsely conscious of social positions
Builds framework for modern society and our psychologies
Enables us to grasp history & biography and the relations between both in society
Life of an individual & history of society = intertwined; can’t be understood without the other
according to Mills, what is imagination
capacity to shift from 1 perspective to another
“It is the capacity to range from the most impersonal and remote transformations to the most intimate features of the human self and to see the relations between the two”
according to Mills, what are personal troubles of milieu
occur within character of individual & range of relations with others (private matters)
Involve ourselves & the limited areas of social life that we’re directly & personally aware of
Statement & resolution of troubles lie within us to the scope of our milieu
Immediate milieu → social setting directly open to personal experience & willful activity
according to Mills, what are public issues of social structure
matters that transcend local environments of individuals & range of inner life
Involve organization of many milieux into institutions of historical society to overlap and form larger structure of social/historical life
Public matter
Often involves crisis in institutional arrangements and contradictions/antagonisms
what are the 7 parts of culture
Beliefs
Values
Norms
Language
Practices
Symbols
Material objects/material culture
what are beliefs
particular ideas that people accept as truth
what are values
ideal principles for governing right and wrong
Culturally defined standards of goodness
Serve as guidelines for social living
what are norms
common rules of culture governing behavior
Tells us what we can/can’t and should/shouldn’t do
Law = formal norm codified
what is language
symbolic system of verbal, written, or enacted representations
Vehicle for conveying meaning
what are practices
behavior patterns
Not necessarily connected to beliefs or values
what are symbols
anything carrying particular meaning
Must be recognized by people who share culture
what are material objects/material culture
physical objects distinguishing a group of people
Ex: art, buildings, weapons, utensils, shoes, hairstyle, cloth, etc.
what is a theory
approach of philosophy explaining to us why things are the way they are
set of interrelated propositions/principles designed to answer a question or explain a phenomenon
provides us with a perspective
what is the functionalist theory
theorists think about society like a human body
Systems within society are like systems within a human body
Institutions are like organs in the human body
Tells us that there is an unhealthy society that leads to human suffering
Has roots in early 1900’s approaches
If things aren’t the way they ought to be, society is “sick” or dysfunctional
Supported by Durkheim & Robert Merton
Argued that there are manifest & latentfunctions; there are purposes for things and unanticipated results
Largely based on works of Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton
Views society as a system of interconnected parts working together in harmony to maintain balance & social equilibrium
Social institutions contribute to important societal functions (family, education, knowledge, politics, economics, religion, etc.)
Emphasizes interconnectedness of society; each part influences and is influenced by other parts
Explain social conditions through terms like “homeostasis”
what is the conflict theory
considers if groups in any given society exist in competition with each other for resources
Institutions conflict in serving the public, public conflicts with each other
Reached peak popularity in 1970’s
Supported by Karl Marx & Mills
views society as composed of different groups & interests competing for power and resources
Explains aspects of society by looking at which groups have power & benefit from social arrangements
Ex: feminist theory → society = patriarchal; hierarchical system controlled by men
Origins trace back to Karl Marx
Suggested that all societies go through stages of economic development
Shift from agricultural to industrial = profit over survival (capitalism)
Industrialization leads to formation of bourgeoisie (elite) and proletariat (workers)
what is symbolic interactionism
considers microlevel interactions (small group exchanges) of communication
Became popular in 1950’s
Ex: volume of tone, how a person sits, body language
Based on Erving Goffman’s work relating to dramaturgical theory
All people in all social groups live in terms of a front state & back stage of their lives
Our life is based in scripts and how we act around others & carry ourselves
Supported by Erving Goffman & Charles Cooley
Cooley established concept of “looking glass self;” there are different versions of ourselves that others see us as
Different characteristics of social agent occurring through interaction
emphasizes that human behavior = influenced by definitions & meanings created and maintained through symbolic interaction with others
Reflects microsociological perspective
Largely influenced by George Simmel, Charles Cooley, George Herbert Mead, Erving Goffman
W.I Thomas → importance of definitions & meanings in social behavior
Humans respond to their definition of a situation rather than the situation itself
Situations that we define as real become real in their consequences
Our identity/sense of self = shaped by social interaction
We develop our self-concept by observing how others interact with us & label us
things that are real in their constructs become real
Identities shift, fluctuate and create paradoxes
Tries to explain how meaning is co-produced
Doesn’t explain major patterns in history
symbolic interactionism looks at __________ of interactions while conflict and functionalist theories are __________
microlevel; macrolevel
who was Anna Julia Cooper
Asked about goodness, decency, patience, kindness and how they actually behave in our lives
Good deal of what we report to believe in doesn’t match up with our actual actions
Educator; advocated for black students’ opportunities in higher education
Began education 2 years post-Civil War; BA & MA in mathematics, got PHD in France
Wrote book A Voice from the South in 1892
who was Charlotte Perkins Gilman
Writer, lecturer, activist
Reluctantly got married at 24, suffered from post-partum depression
Doctor told her to stop thinking so much
Separated from husband, met Jane Addams in 1895 and moved to Chicago
Joined commune of other single women to work on children’s rights & labor reform
Involved in first wave of US feminism in Chicago
Remarried man who supported her intellectual pursuits
Believed that women should work outside of the home
who was W.E.B DuBois
Valedictorian, 2 bachelors degrees, PHD from Harvard (first black man to do so)
Studied history & economics in Berlin; observed how other societies operate
Taught Greek & Latin in Ohio for 2 years, struggled to get job because of race
Co-founded NAACP (national association for advancement of colored people)
Wrote The Philadelphia Negro → drew exact dimensions of neighborhoods and invented new methods of research to discuss demographics
Explained segregated labor practices, economics, law
Often considered “founding father of sociology” in US
Booker T. Washington → advocated for slower approach in movement towards civil rights
DuBois disagreed and wanted full advancement in equal rights
Wrote The Souls of Black Folk in 1903
Co-founded Niagara movement
Got fired from NAACP because he clashed with their objectives towards equality
Retired in Ghana
who was Ida B. Wells
Vocal anti-lynching activist, co-founder of NAACP
Parents died when she was 16; became primary caregiver for 6 siblings
Finished education and became teacher in 1878
During train ride to work, conductor told her to move to the smoking car but she had 1st class ticket
Sued railroad company and won the lawsuit
Railroad company appealed, TN court overruled, Wells had to pay fine
Wrote in newspapers challenging Jim Crow and apartheid in US
3 of her friends are arrested and lynched in 1892
Southern Horrors pamphlet published in 1892; collection of research on lynching
Published A Red Record in 1895
Disputes rape myth that white women are always under threat of black men
Uncovered 2 patterns among lynching victims:
Challenged white authority
Successfully competed in business or politics with people categorized as white
Went to England for safety and established Brititsh Anti-Lynching Society
who was Karl Marx
Born in Prussia, 8 siblings, dad = lawyer & reformist activist
parents = Jewish ethnically, converted to Christianity
Studied law at Bonn, got into fights and transferred to University of Berlin
Began studying philosophy with Hegel and became radicalized in thinking
Young Hegelians criticized political & religious establishments
Unable to get a job because of his radical politics; banned from teaching
Began thinking about material world and inequality in class, industry, labor, income
Writes The Communist Manifesto in 1888 co-authored with Friedrich Engels
“The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles”
Views social problems in context of economic structure & class dynamics
Chased out of town by debtors, exiled from many European countries
Wrote Capital in 1867
who was Herbert Spencer
Positivist theorist → positivism = approach to reality saying there is a basic truth/black and white answer and objectivity is necessary
Inspired by work of Auguste Comte and Charles Darwin
Credited with thinking about quantitative work
Showed evidence leading to conclusions; variety of investigations in data, analyzed with results
who was Émile Durkheim
Wrote Suicide in 1887 in response to skyrocketing suicide rates in France
People didn’t understand evolving norms and societal understandings of morality
Without that foundation of culture, people were suffering from anomie
Expected to become rabbi; experienced hostility from Christians and created solidarity among Jews
Began teaching philosophy in 1882 and encouraged introduction of social science
1893 University of Bordeaux doctoral dissertation → “The Division of Labor in Society”
Son killed in WWI in 1916, experienced grief
Who was Max Weber
Born in Germany; father = lawyer with passion for politics
Overheard intellectual conversations
Studied law, history, philosophy, economics at Heidelberg University; spent year in military
Passed the bar in 1886, got PHD and got married, became full professor
Had bad fight with father and never made up; went into depression and felt guilty for dad’s death
Published Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism in 1904
Claimed that rise of modern capitalism = due to protestant thinking; tied religion with econ
Tried teaching again in 1918 but died from the Spanish flu in 1920
Wife published his final work Economy & Society
Considered as father of modern sociology; credited with thinking about qualitative work
Anti-positivist → no simple objectivity; we must historicize social phenomena to understand the interpretations/perspectives of reality
what are the 3 main sociological perspectives
functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism
what do sociological theories do
Sociological theories provide us different perspectives to view the social world
Help explain/predict the social world we live in
what is a perspective
way of looking at the world
under functionalist theory, what are functional elements in society
social elements are functional if they contribute to social stability
under functionalist theory, what are dysfunctional elements in society
Elements are dysfunctional if they disrupt social stability
under functionalist theory, what are the 2 types of functions
manifest & latent functions
under functionalist theory, what are manifest functions
consequences that are intended & commonly recognized
under functionalist theory, what are latent functions
consequences that are unintended & often hidden
under conflict theory, society is divided into ______ and _______
“haves” and “have nots”
what are macrosociological perspectives
concerned with how broad aspects of society influence social world (institutions, large social groups); Looks at bigger picture of society & suggests how social problems are affected at institutional level
what is microsociology
concerned with social psychological dynamics of people interacting in small groups
according to W.I Thomas and the symbolic interactionist perspective, what is the looking glass self?
by seeing how others view us, we see a reflection of ourselves
what is DuBois’ concept of the “veil”
“Veil” shuts out marginalized groups from participating in society and being equally treated
what is DuBois’ concept of double consciousness
Double consciousness “only lets him see himself through the revelation of the other world”
One always looks at themselves through others’ eyes
Conflicting identities of being both black and American; 2 souls, 2 thoughts, 2 contrasting ideals
Constant longing to attain self-consciousness & merge double self into better/truer self
what is DuBois’ idea of the color line
division between races
what is a merit and a demerit of conflict theory
Conflict theory helps us understand material culture but doesn’t help us understand when social groups actually find alignment and solidarity when they’re supposed to be in competition (ex: interracial marriage)
what is a merit and a demerit of symbolic interaction theory
helpful in understanding social interactions and behavior at a closer level, but fails to acknowledge how society operates at a larger scale among institutions in a bigger historical context
what is a merit and a demerit of functionalist theory
seful in assessing the larger picture of societal institutions, but it neglects the other social interactions that occur at a smaller level and still have relevance in societal behavior
what is language
symbolic system that can be expressed verbally, physically, or in written format
what are the 2 approaches to social science
Humanities approach & Social sciences perspective
what is the humanities approach
thinks about culture as something you can have or not have
Culture is an ideal; the height of perfection
Ethnicity is not the same as culture; culture = status, ethnicity = everything else
Tied to ethnocentric POV
what is ethnocentrism
judging another’s culture from one’s own cultural perspective; judgment = negative; assumption of automatic superiority
what is the social sciences perspective
relativistic, not evaluative
Culture = dynamic and persistent; always moving, changing, in flux, always changing
Culture and ethnicity are harmonious; everyone has culture
culture can be studied empirically
Favors cultural relativism
what is an empirical observation
you used one of your senses to observe it
what is cultural relativism
accepting cultural differences and understanding different values
what was Clifford Geertz’ philosophy
culture = transmitted patterns of meaning embodied in symbols
according to Wendy Griswold, what are simple meanings
simple meanings are things with single referent
according to Wendy Griswold, what are complex meanings
Complex meanings are things with multiple different referents; Different people interpret it differently based on life experience, social status, etc.
what is Plato’s theory of form
reality = just a representation of something we’re presented with
Appearances = reality; reflection theory
Allegory of the cave → what we think we see every day is just a reflection of forces that are unseen that cause those appearances to seem like reality
Reality is shaped/molded and then the curated version is presented to us
according to Streeter, why are semiotics important
semiotics calls attention to formal structures & signification
Use meaning as a tool for social critique & analysis
what is a sign
anything that makes meaning; smallest unit of meaning
what is a signifier
material thing that signifies something (ex: word, sheet music, etc.)
what is a signified
concept that the signifier refers to (the idea)
what is a myth
combination of images making up a frequently told story that has cultural associations
a combination of paradigms and syntagms that make up an oft-told story with elaborate cultural associations
what is a denotation
literal basic meaning of a sign; the written word; basic, most fundamental form of a sign/relation of signifier to signified
what is a connotation
the idea that is associated with the denotation; secondary meaning
signifying signs; signs that become the signifier for a second signified
what is ideology
belief system that tries to explain and justify the status quo
codes that reinforce or are congruent with structures of power
works largely by creating forms of "common sense" of taken-for-granted in everyday life
False consciousness = system of ideas that is a problem because it presents a false picture of the world
Better understood today as something embedded in culture’s common sense
habits, routine activities, etc.
Thrives beneath consciousness
Where semiotic systems & codes intersect with exercise of power in social life
Process where codes reinforce/become congruent with structures of power
Doesn’t persuade people of the value of explicit ideas; creates forms of “common sense”
Most powerful when it seems obvious, natural, not worth questioning
what is a reflexivity statement
used in research to explain how biases can influence findings
what is the goal in sociology
objectivity
what are quantitative methods
deal with numeric considerations
associated with positivism (yes/no, black/white)
Objective truths
what are qualitative methods
focus on deeper view of content rather than wider cache
associated with antipositivism
Something can be different from something else, and both can be true
what does a conclusion consist of
assumption + evidence (relies on both)
Any conclusion relies on evidence to back it up & must address 1 or more assumptions
what is a meritocracy
society based on getting ahead on your own merits alone
what does an inductive approach entail
starts with observation
person sees something around them, notices pattern/trend and collects data & analyzes it
Theorize on the basis of those observations and draw tentative conclusions
what does a deductive approach entail
starts with a question based on theory
Goes from specific to general in a deductive way
Starts with theory, formulates hypothesis, collects/analyzes data, gets results and draws tentative conclusions
what is epistemology
study of knowledge and how we justify our beliefs
what are the 2 types of methods
quantitative & qualitative
what is validity
how close the findings are to the truth/what actually happened
what is scope
how extensive the project is (ex: over time, over place geographically, in sample size)
what are the 4 types of social research
Descriptive research → asks how often people do something
Explorative research → asks whether things can have certain effects
Explanation → best answers question WHY (motivations, patterns, effects, etc.)
Evaluation → asks whether having access to certain things leads to change
what is the IRB (Institutional Review Board)
individuals assigned to review proposals for research projects
Ensures protection for vulnerable populations
what is semiotics
traditional of thought calling attention to formal structures of signification & meaning-making in culture
Can be used to reveal arbitrary/constructed character of the meanings we use in our everyday lives
Form of social criticism
what is a metonymy/synecdoche
the use of a part of something to refer to the whole
what is a paradigm
chain/collection of signs that invoke each other because they’re culturally/paradigmatically related; where signs get meaning from their association with other signs
Putting together 2 or more elements from a paradigm invokes more associations from that paradigm
what are syntagmatic relations
relations of sequence → where signs get meaning from their sequential order
Ordering of elements in a paradigm doesn’t change meaning
Changing order of signs in syntagm changes meaning
story/narrative = casually connected sequence of events; type of syntagmatic relation
what are codes
combination of semiotic systems (supersystem) that function as general maps of meaning & belief systems about oneself and others
Systems of ideas people use to interpret their own and others’ behavior
imply views and attitudes about how the world is/ought to be
Connects semiotic systems of meaning with social structure & values
Signs, images, narratives, myths influence our behavior through these codes
Provide ways of making sense of the world so we can use them to guide our actions
what is reflexivity
recognition of our relationship to the subject of inquiry
Understanding that how we study something affects what our understanding of it is
what does objectivity mean
the non-biased, objective truth about reality
what is epistemology
how do we know what we think we know
what is assimilation
minority group adopts majority culture to assimilate
Majority imposes its cultural norms on minority groups & minority is expected to conform
Example in schools: English as Second Language (ESL) classes
what is acculturation
cultural exchange
Example in schools: learning cultural dances of different countries
Emphasizes smooth functioning of society because people can see and appreciate differences
what is integration
equality & incorporation
how does functionalism view education
as serving functions to society → socialization, integration, social placement, innovation
Integration = assimilation/conformity (not actual definition of integration)
Social placement teaches people where they belong in terms of social status
focuses on how students are identified by teachers as either bright/motivated or less bright/educationally challenged
Depending on how they’re identified, children can be taught differently
Social/cultural innovation = new ideas rising through interactions/peer-to-peer relationships
Scientists can’t reach conclusions if they haven’t been educated
Doesn’t account for inequality from and in education systems
according to Robert Merton, what are the manifest & latent functions of education
Manifest function of school = learning
Latent function of school = learning how to date, deal with bullies, etc.
According to Durkheim, what is the purpose of school
morality
how does conflict theory view education
education creates inequality through tracking, standardized tests, impact of “hidden curriculum”
Schools differ in their funding/resources, learning conditions
Students at underfunded schools can’t compete with students from privileged backgrounds/schools; fuels social inequality
Ensures that people will be challenged
School tracking segregates students who perform well from students who struggle
When you pair a strong student with a struggling student, both will benefit/improve
Even though there are pros/cons of tracking, it overall promotes inequality
Standardized tests only speak to 1 gender/racial/class category
easier for some people to answer than others
Emphasizes the way students are unequal and the obstacles students face
Hidden curriculum → how class is learned in school
who is in the power elite according to Mills
Corporate elite
Pentagon
Executive branch
unequal distribution of power in society which the power elite benefit from
how does symbolic interactionism view education
focuses on interactions (school board meetings, classrooms, etc.)
Interaction creates meaning through the interaction
impacts gender identity, gender formation, class identity, class formation, racial identity, racial formation
Interested in how teachers’ expectations of people’s intellectual abilities affect how pupils learn & how much they learn
Discusses how social roles are reinforced through the process of socialization
Very minute; assumptions regarding body language, facial expressions, etc.
When teachers think their students are smart, the students perform better
what is labeling theory
if you’ve labeled someone as good/bad, that label will stick with them
Labeling someone as a deviant of society will stick with them; hard to remove
Both for the person themselves and the viewer assigning that label
what does education teach us
social norms and values
ex: patriotism, respect for authority, punctuality, individualism, competition
Students compete for grades, on playground, in events/games
Approaches to educational values vary by country
Ex: normative behavior in Japan schools = teamwork, harmony, group belonging; loyalty and teamwork prioritized over individualism
what does Chandra Talpade Mohanty argue
discussions of women in developing countries refer to them as part of 3rd world
Refer to women as one-dimensional because they’re written about by women in Western world, which view themselves as 1st world
Implicates that these people are less civilized/modern (classist)
Thinks of people in developing countries as simple minded/infantalized (racial)
No such thing as a 3rd world woman, it is a constructed idea
what is the idea of the myth of meritocracy
Political leaders often encourage Americans to believe that all dreams are achievable in the US if people work hard enough regardless of their race, class, gender
Much more of a myth than fact that people are primary rewarded based on merit & we live in a society with equal opportunities
Person’s life chances/opportunities continue to significantly be shaped by racial identity
Gender, class, sexuality, nationality, citizenship, religion also intersect with race to further complicate the ways people’s chances/opportunities are determined
wealth/inheritances of white people today originate from unfair gains/unjust advantages made possible from past racial discrimination
Wealth & inheritance allow people to get a head start in accessing opportunities that yield potential to build more wealth
Hard work of people who already have wealth = much more likely to yield economic rewards than hard work of people who must use all their income to pay bills/manage expenses
White people generally inherit more money than black people
Blacks, Latinos, Native Americans = more likely to be asset poor
don’t have savings to fall back on when a family member loses a job, experiences illness/disability, or has to stop working to take care of children