AP Language Terms

Deduction

A logical process wherein you reach a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise) ================ Major premise: Exercise contributes to better health Minor premise: Yoga is a type of exercise Conclusion: Yoga contributes to better health

Diction

A speaker's choice of words. Analysis of _______ looks at these choices and what they add to the speaker's message

Either/or (false dilemma)

In this fallacy, the speaker presents two extreme options as the only possible choices. ================ Either we agree to higher taxes, or our grandchildren will be mired in debt.

Enthymeme

Essentially a syllogism with one of the premises implied, and taken for granted as understood. ================ You should take her class because I learned so much from her last year. (Implied premise: If you take her class, you will learn a lot too.)

Equivocation

A fallacy that uses a term with two or more meanings in an attempt to misrepresent or deceive ================ We will bring our enemies to justice, or we will bring justice to them.

Ethos

Greek for "character." Speakers appeal to _____ to demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy to speak on a given topic. _____ is established by both who you are and what you say. ================ Lou Gehrig brings the _____ of being a legendary athlete to his speech, yet in it he establishes a different kind of _____ -- that of a regular guy and a good sport who shares the audience's love of baseball and family. And like them, he has known luck and bad breaks.

Exordium

In classical oration, the introduction to an argument, in which the speaker announces the subject and purpose, and appeals to ethos in order to establish credibility.

Faulty analogy

A fallacy that occurs when an analogy compares two things that are not comparable. ================ To argue that because we put animals who are in irreversible pain out of their misery, so we should do the same for people, asks the reader to ignore significant and profound differences between animals and people.

Figurative language (figure of speech)

Nonliteral language, sometimes referred to as tropes or metaphorical language, often evoking strong imagery, often compare one thing to another either explicitly (simile) of implicitly (metaphor). Other forms include personification, paradox, overstatement (hyperbole), understatement, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony.

First-hand evidence

Evidence based on something the writer knows, whether it's from personal experience, observations, or general knowledge of events.

Hasty generalization

A fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence. ================ Smoking isn't bad for you; my great aunt smoked a pack a day and lived to be 90.

Hortative sentence

Sentence that exhorts, urges, entreats, implores, or calls to action. ================ Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us.

Hyperbole

Deliberate exaggeration used for emphasis or to produce a comic or ironic effect; an overstatement to make a point. ================ My first and last name together generally served the same purpose as a high brick wall.

Imagery

A description of how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, or sounds. _______ may use literal or figurative language to appeal to the senses. ================ Your eyes glaze as you travel life's highway past all the crushed animals and the Big Gulp cups.

Imperative sentence

Sentence used to command or enjoin.

Paradox

A statement or situation that is seemingly contradictory on surface, but delivers and ironic truth. ================ There is that scattereth, yet increaseth. To live outside the law you must be honest.

Parallelism

Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses. ================ Let both sides explore... Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals... Let both sides seek to invoke... Let both sides unite to heed...

Pathos

Greek for "suffering" or "experience." Speakers appeal to ______ to emotionally motivate their audience. More specific appeals to ______ might play on the audience's values, desires, and hopes, on the one hand, or fears and prejudices, on the other. ================ The most striking appeal to pathos is the poignant contrast between Gehrig's horrible diagnosis and his public display of courage.

Periodic sentence

Sentence whose main clause is withheld until the end. ================ To that world assembly of sovereign states, the United Nations, our last best hope in an age where the instruments of war have far outpaced the instruments of peace, we renew our pledge of support....

Peroration

In classical oration, the final part of an argument. It follows the refutation and typically appeals to pathos as it moves the audience toward the conclusion.

Persona

Greek for "mask." The face or character that a speaker shows to his or her audience. ================ Lou Gehrig is a famous baseball hero, but in his speech he presents himself as a common man who is modest and thankful for the opportunities he's had.

Personification

Attribution of a lifelike quality to an inanimate object or an idea. ================ "... with history the final judge of our deeds ..." - JFK

Polemic

Greek for "hostile." An aggressive argument that tries to establish the superiority of one opinion over all others. Generally do not concede that opposing opinions have any merit.

Polysyndeton

The deliberate use of multiple conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words. ================ I paid for my plane ticket, and the taxes, and the fees, and the charge for the checked bag, and five dollars for a bottle of water.

Post hoc ergo propter hoc

This fallacy is Latin for "after which therefore because of which," meaning that it is incorrect to always claim that something is a cause just because it happened earlier. One may loosely summarize this fallacy by saying that correlation does not imply causation. ================ We elected Johnson as president and look where it got us: hurricanes, floods, stock market crashes.

Propaganda

The spread of ideas and information to further a cause.

Purpose

The goal the speaker wants to achieve. ================ Gehrig's purpose in delivering his Farewell Address is to thank his fans and his teammates, but he also wants to demonstrate that he remains positive; he emphasizes his past luck and present optimism and downplays his illness.

Qualified argument

An argument that is not absolute. It acknowledges the merits of an opposing view, but develops a stronger case for its own position.

Qualifier

In the Toulmin model, the [blank] uses words like usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, and most likely to temper the claim a bit, making it less absolute.

Qualitative evidence

Evidence supported by reason, tradition, or precedent.

Quantitative evidence

Includes things that can be measured, cited, counted, or otherwise represented in numbers.

Rebuttal

In the Toulmin model, a [blank] gives voice to possible objections.

Refutation

A denial of the validity of an opposing argument. In order to sound reasonable, a [blank] often follows a concession that acknowledges that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. ================ Lou Gehrig refutes that his bad break is a cause for discouragement by saying that he has "an awful lot to live for!"

Reservation

In the Toulmin model, a [blank] explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier.

Rhetoric

Aristotle defined [blank] as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion." In other words, it is the art of finding ways of persuading an audience.

Rhetorical appeals

Rhetorical techniques used to persuade an audience by emphasizing what they find most important or compelling. The 3 major appeals are to ethos (character), logos (reason), and pathos (emotion).

Rhetorical triangle

A diagram that illustrates the interrelationship among the speaker, audience, and subject in determining a text.

Rogerian Argument

Developed by psychiatrist Carl Rogers, [blank] are based on the assumption that fully understanding an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating.

Satire

The use of irony or sarcasm to critique society or an individual.

Scheme

Artful syntax; a deviation from the normal order of words. ================ Parallelism, juxtaposition, antithesis, and antimetabole.

Second-hand evidence

Evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and investigation. It includes factual and historical information, expert opinion, and quantitative data.

Simile

A figure of speech used to explain or clarify an idea by comparing it explicitly to something else, using the words like, as, or as though. ================ Zoos are pretty, contained, and accessible... Sort of like a biological Crabtree and Evelyn basket selected with you in mind.

SOAPS

A mnemonic device that stands for Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, and Speaker. It is a handy way to remember the various elements that make up the rhetorical situation.

Speaker

The person or group who creates a text. ================ A politician who delivers a speech, a commentator who writes an article, an artist who draws a political cartoon, or even a company that commissions an advertisement.

Stance

A speaker's attitude toward the audience.

Straw man

A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea. ================ Politician X proposes that we put astronauts on Mars in the next four years. Politician Y ridicules this proposal by saying that his opponent is looking for "little green men in outer space."

Subject

The topic of a text, what the text is about. ================ Lou Gehrig's subject in his speech is his illness, but it is also an expression of his gratitude for all of the lucky breaks that preceded his diagnosis.

Syllogism

A logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary conclusion. ================ Major Premise: Exercise contributes to better health. Minor Premise: Yoga is a type of exercise. Conclusion: Yoga contributes to better health.

Synecdoche

Figure of speech that uses a part to represent the whole. ================ In your hands, my fellow citizens, more than mine, will rest the final success or failure of our course. -JFK

Syntax

The arrangement of words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. This includes word order; the length and structure of sentences; and such schemes as parallelism, juxtaposition, antithesis, and antimetabole.

Synthesize

Combining two or more ideas in order to create something more complex in support of a new idea.

Text

Any cultural product that can be "read" -- meaning not just consumed and comprehended, but investigated. ================ Fiction, nonfiction, poetry, political cartoons, fine art, photography, performances, fashion, cultural trends, and much more.

Tone

A speaker's attitude toward the subject conveyed by the speaker's stylistic and rhetorical choices.

Toulmin model

An approach to analyzing and constructing arguments created by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin in his book "The Uses of Argument."

Trope

Artful diction; from the Greek word for "turning," a figure of speech such as metaphor, simile, hyperbole, metonymy, or synecdoche.

Understatement

A figure of speech in which something is presented as less important, dire, urgent, good, and so on, than it actually is, often for satiric or comical effect. ================ "You might want to write clearly and cogently in your English class. The night in prison was novel and interesting enough." -Thoreau

Warrant

In the Toulmin model, the [blank] expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience.

Wit

In rhetoric, the use of laughter, humor, irony, and satire in the confirmation or refutation of an argument.

Zeugma

Use of two different words in a grammatically similar way that produces different, often incongruous meanings. ================ When you open a book, you open your mind.

Ad Hominem

Latin for "against the man," this fallacy refers to the specific diversionary tactic of switching the argument from the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker. ================ If you argue that a park in your community should not be renovated because the person supporting it was arrested during a domestic dispute.

Ad Poplum

This fallacy occurs when evidence boils down to "everybody's doing it, so it must be a good thing to do." ================ "You should vote to elect Rachel Johnson -- she has a strong lead in the polls." Polling higher does not necessarily make Senator Johnson the "best" candidate, only the most popular.

Alliteration

Repetition of the same sound beginning several words or syllables in sequence. ================ Let us go forth to lead the land we love.

Allusion

Brief reference to a person, event, or place (real or fictitious) or to a work of art. ================ Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah.

Analogy

A comparison between two seemingly dissimilar things. Often, uses something simple or familiar to explain something unfamiliar or complex. ================ As birds have flight, our special gift is reason.

Anaphora

Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or lines. ================ ... not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need -- not as a call to battle, though embattled we are ...

Anecdote

A brief story used to illustrate a point or claim.

Annotation

The taking of notes directly on a text.

Antimetabole

Repetition of words in reverse order. ================ "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country."

Antithesis

Opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction. ================ We shall support any friend, oppose any foe.

Appeal to False Authority

This fallacy occurs when someone who has no expertise to speak on an issue is cited as an authority. ================ According to former congressional leader Ari Miller, the Himalayas have an estimated Yeti population of between 300 and 500 individuals.

Archaic Diction

Old-fashioned or outdated choice of words. ================ Beliefs for which our forebears fought.

Argument

A process of reasoned inquiry. A persuasive discourse resulting in a coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion.

Aristotelian Triangle

A diagram showing the relations of writer or speaker, audience (reader or listener), and text in a rhetorical situation.

Assertion

A statement that presents a claim or thesis.

Asyndeton

Omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words. ================ We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.

Audience

The listener, viewer, or reader of a text.

Begging the Question

A fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt.

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Giving students easy access to a wealth of facts and resources online allows them to develop critical thinking skills.

Circular Reasoning

A fallacy in which the argument repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence. ================ You can't give me a C; I'm an A student!

Claim

Also called an assertion or proposition, states the argument's main idea or position.

Claim of Fact

Asserts that something is true or not true. ================ The number of suicides and homicides committed by teenagers, most often young men, has exploded in the last 3 decades.

Claim of Policy

Proposes a change. ================ Yet one solution continues to elude us, and that is ending the ignorance about mental health, and moving it from the margins of care and into the mainstream where it belongs.

Claim of Value

Argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong. ================ There's a plague on all our houses, and since it doesn't announce itself with lumps or spots or protest marches, it has gone unremarked in the quiet suburbs and busy cities where it has been laying waste.

Closed Thesis

A statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make. ================ The three-dimensional characters, exciting plot, and complex themes of the Harry Potter series make them not only legendary children's books but also enduring literary classics.

Complex Sentence

A sentence that includes one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. ================ If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.

Compound Sentence

A sentence that includes at least 2 independent clauses. ================ The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will light our country and all who serve it and the glow from that fire can truly light the world.

Concession

An acknowledgement that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. Accompanied by a refutation challenging the validity of the opposing argument.

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Lou Gehrig concedes what some of his listeners may think -- that his bad break is a cause for discouragement or despair.

Confirmation

In classical oration, this major part of an argument comes between the narration and refutation; it provides the development of proof through evidence that supports the claims made by the speaker.

Connotation

Meanings or associations that readers have with a word beyond its dictionary definition, or denotation. Often positive or negative, and they often greatly affect the author's tone. ================ That cat is plump. That cat is fat. That cat is obese.

Context

The circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text. ================ The context for Lou Gehrig's speech is the recent announcement of his illness and his subsequent retirement, but also the poignant contrast between his potent career and his debilitating disease.

Counterargument

An opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward. ================ Some of Lou Gehrig's listeners might have argued that his bad break was a cause for discouragement or despair.

Cumulative Sentence

Sentence that completes the main idea at the beginning of the sentence and then builds and adds on. ================ But neither can two great and powerful groups of nations take comfort from our present course - both sides overburdened by the cost of modern weapons, both rightly alarmed by the steady spread of the deadly atom, yet both racing to alter that uncertain balance of terror that stays the hand of mankind's final war.